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Imperialism The successes of imperialism convinced Europeans that they were indeed "fittest." By the end of the nineteenth century, the struggle to compete with other nation-states had driven Europeans to conquer all over the globe.
Noting popular discontent with the Rebellion of 1857, the British moved to implement a system that capitalized on desires to make India a working colony. Ending East India Company rule, the British administration moved to modernize India with new infrastructure, irrigation, and public works. Although peasants earned diminished returns on their labor, agriculture flourished and contributed to British financial strength. British efforts to unify India laid the foundation for Indians to create a national identity, particularly when Indians were excluded from full citizenship in the British system.
Dutch Colonial Rule in Indonesia The Dutch sought even more regimented control, setting prices and rents in Indonesia. Forced to grow export staples like coffee, the Indonesian peoples suffered from dropping food production. As starvation ensued, local peoples rebelled, prompting warfare and reform of the government. The Dutch gained economically, but the native people did not enjoy full status as citizens even in their own lands.
The division of Africa into colonies took less than thirty-five years. British penetration and the discovery of gold and diamonds stimulated other European powers to rush for colonial holdings. To avoid conflict, Germany hosted a conference, the participants of which determined to recognize each other’s acquisitions in Africa. European division of the continent divided tribes and threw diverse peoples together. Adventurers and missionaries contributed to European interest in Africa as British and German holdings expanded. King Leopold of Belgium carved out of the Congo his own personal state of terror and slaughter. African leaders either negotiated to reduce the loss of their land or fought, although most fought and were crushed. Only Ethiopia emerged strong enough to resist European expansion by playing the powers off one another and securing arms for its own army. Others fell victim to Europe’s superior weaponry and tactics, or, like Samori Touré, were simply worn down.
Some colonial administrations relied on military might and terror. Most European leaders sought to enrich themselves first and thus skimped by arming native supporters to protect European dominance. With time, European governments intervened to assure more civil administration by putting down revolts, seeking fiscal independence, and attracting missionaries, settlers, and merchants. New agricultural products contributed to economic independence of the colonies, although the producers again got little for their efforts. Mining also produced great profits but disrupted family life for tens of thousands of miners. European power in Africa, although appearing strong, depended on African-based armies and thus remained fragile.
Extending Manifest Destiny, seeking new markets, and offering to civilize the world, Americans also turned to empire building. Taking Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the United States disregarded earlier promises of freedom and instead produced new colonies. Like the European powers, the United States had formally entered the realm of imperialism by intervening in the affairs of other countries.
Social Darwinist ideas combined with ideals of Europe’s civilizing influence to justify imperialist expansion. The popularity of these ventures helped unify the people at home by lifting national pride and creating new images of national triumph. Motherhood was a highly regarded value, both in its ability to produce strong nationals and in the maternal regard Europeans held for their colonial charges. The adventurous European lad became a common image that pitted young men against the enemies of civilization—namely, Africans and Orientals. >> Continue to the next part of the Summary: Japan, Russia, and China
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