Islamic Dynasties

The Mongol invasions and the Black Death left the Islamic world in tatters. Great centers of Islamic learning and civilization were destroyed. The Mongols, however, failed to establish a long-lasting regime in their place. Unwilling to share power with local, conquered peoples, the Persian Il-khans had no base on which to build a more permanent system of government. Instead, they relied on brute force and intimidation to maintain their positions of power. When factionalism broke out among the Mongol overlords, their power fell apart. Within the power vacuum of southwestern Asia, new contenders began to rise. Beginning small, the Ottomans and Safavids gradually attracted followers and built power.

As these post-Mongol states expanded, the borders of Islam began to extend outward. What had existed primarily as an Arabic-speaking culture with some Turks and Persians, soon spread to new vistas in which Turkish and Persian speakers rose as the majority. With the sixteenth century, three emerging Islamic empires began to dominate the Islamic world: the Ottomans in Anatolia (and around the Mediterranean), the Safavids in Persia, and the Mughals in India.

The Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The Turkish Ottomans rose to power under the leadership of Osman. Beginning as Islamic warrior bands, they defeated rival bands and conducted a holy war against Christian Byzantines. Based in Bursa, the Ottomans avoided the primary failure of the Mongols by establishing a system of rule that attracted and included educated urbanites. At the top of the system sat a sultan who oversaw both military and civilian bureaucracies. By the mid-sixteenth century, the Ottomans had expanded into the Balkans as the most powerful force in the Middle East.

   The Tools of Empire Building:

Promises to new subjects fueled military expansion, which provided spoils for more expansion and rewards for followers. By sharing wealth and power, the Ottomans turned conquered peoples into loyal subjects. In 1453, only half a century after roaming as a nomadic tribe, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. Suleiman the Magnificent continued the conquests. More than just a military man, he supported the arts and headed a government known for just and efficient rule. Istanbul had become the primary link between Europe and the Islamic world and the Ottomans reaped rewards in trade and status. Ottoman power also employed religion. Sultans combined features of the warrior with those of Islamic believers.

   Istanbul and the Topkapi Palace:

Defending and promoting Islam, the Ottomans built mosques and schools, kept the peace, and protected Muslims from Christians and other rivals. Istanbul reflected Islam’s greatness. Rebuilding after the conquest, the Ottomans constructed palaces, mosques, walls, public buildings, bazaars, baths, and inns. Muslims and non-Muslims alike were invited to Istanbul, which eventually grew to a population of 400,000—the largest city outside China. From Topkapi Palace, the sultan governed via a large bureaucracy headed by the grand vizier. Young men selected to be trained for government service went to the palace to learn Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and martial skills. These became elites that fought and ruled for the sultan. Topkapi also housed the sultan’s harem of 12,000 or so women, ranging from slave girls to favorite consorts.

   Diversity in the Ottoman Empire:

Reaching into Europe and North Africa, Ottoman streets hosted numerous languages, although Ottoman Turkish was the official language of governing. Regions were allowed significant autonomy. As long as they paid taxes and provided soldiers, local authorities governed themselves. This decentralized approach threatened Ottoman control, however, particularly as local leaders short-changed Istanbul. Thus, center-appointed administrators and janissaries, soldiers loyal to the sultan, were placed throughout the empire. Conscripted from Christian villages and trained as Islamic warriors, the janissaries became an elite corps of military and administrative leaders, loyal to the sultan only. Balancing local rule with central control, the Ottomans proved very successful at holding the crossroads between Europe and Asia.

The Emergence of the Safavid Empire in Iran

In Persia (modern Iran) the Safavid empire rose from the smoldering ruins of Mongol conquests. Here, Mongol rule had been particularly destructive and had offended local Muslims by using Jews and Christians as the area’s new elite administrators. When Mongol rule crumbled, the area broke into chaos, with warrior chieftains fighting for influence and religious movements seeking followers. Safi al-Din, head of a religious brotherhood, managed to gain warrior and religious support.

As the Persian state rose, his successors, such as Shah Ismail, began to champion Shiism, killing those opposed to it and making it the state religion. The Safavids also claimed that God had given them divine right to rule. Ismail pronounced himself the first shah of the Safavid Empire. The Safavids did not tolerate diversity, insisting that all conform to the standards of the theocratic regime. As a result, they were never as successful in expanding as the Ottomans.

The Delhi Sultanate and Early Mughal Empire

In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate rose in India. By the time the Mongols reached India in 1303, the Delhi Sultanate was strong enough to meet the Mongols with a powerful military force that drove them back (one of the few examples of Mongol failure). The sultanate embarked on campaigns of conquest for glory and resources, both to help support the large military and to aid further expansion of the empire.

Near the end of the fourteenth century, however, declining revenues and rising expenditures cut into the military budget. This, plus feuds within the military, ensured that the next great wave of invaders could not be turned back. Sweeping down from Central Asia, Timur wreaked havoc on Delhi itself before leaving with artisans and plunder. Religious movements then challenged the weakened Delhi authority, causing large regions like Bengal to break away. Other regional movements defied Delhi authority, and northern India broke into a variety of polities all competing for power. To gain advantage, the governor of Punjab asked Central Asian Turks from Afghanistan to help him against his rivals. Babur (the "Tiger") accepted the invitation, but then destroyed the Delhi Sultanate before proclaiming himself emperor of a new dynasty: the Mughal Dynasty.

The three Islamic dynasties all based their power on strong militaries, religious backing, and extensive bureaucracies. Since all three were expansive, they competed with each other. Nevertheless, Islam also gave them common ground, as did the exchange of goods and ideas.

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