Mass Politics: Competing Visions of Becoming Modern

For many people, World War I destroyed the liberal dream of technological progress, free markets, and government by the educated few. Sacrificing for their nations, those on the lower tiers of society now clamored for a greater share of the economic and political pie. Socialism began to spread while revolution threatened colonial empires. Many liberal regimes collapsed in the wake of the Great Depression. Others lost faith in liberalism and turned to authoritarian solutions. By the 1930s, liberal states looked weak, dictatorships appeared strong, and anti-colonial movements rested on the verge of independence.

Liberal Capitalism under Pressure

Europeans sensed that modernity had only corrupted their societies and looked elsewhere for sources of strength. Some found it in cultures not yet tainted by westernization. Others turned to more authoritarian development of the state. As authoritarian regimes emerged strong and vibrant, faith in liberalism among workers and soldiers declined.

   British and French Responses to Economic Crises:

Pressures from the working class and ex-soldiers forced British and French elites to adjust their systems to better accommodate popular demands. Strikes were commonplace as coalition governments sought to steer their respective countries out of economic crisis. Radicalism thrived in France and successfully secured working-class reforms.

   The American New Deal:

In the United States, the Great Depression came at a time when conservatism was sweeping the land. Republican leaders focused on capitalism and markets free of government interference, rather than poor farmers or African Americans who were left behind. The Great Depression, however, forcibly changed the tone of American politics. Once in power, Roosevelt instituted the New Deal to provide a safety net for the most destitute of Americans. While unable to end the Depression or produce growth, Roosevelt’s welfare programs and state manipulation of the economy managed to save capitalism by holding authoritarianism at bay.

Authoritarianism and Mass Mobilization

Dictatorships promised to transcend the decadence of liberal democracies and create orderly, dynamic societies under the rule of charismatic leaders. All claimed to enjoy the support of the people and assured them that the benefits of modernity could be created while avoiding its downsides. Many believed these claims.

   The Soviet Union:

Taking power in 1917, the Bolsheviks began immediately shoring up their power to defend against attacks from multinational expeditions and White Russian enemies. Success greatly strengthened expansionist tendencies. Stalin succeeded Lenin and moved to construct socialism, which he defined as anti-capitalism. Violence sought to rout signatures of capitalism and led to the organization of giant collective farms. Many peasants protested and were deported to remote areas. Crop failures led to some privatization but no decline of state dominance. In cities, the Five-Year Plan aimed to surpass Western industrial productivity and build up socialism. Huge projects symbolized Soviet greatness. The system, however, grew despotic. Purges routinely eliminated "enemies" among the Soviet elites while terror extended down to all levels of Soviet society.

   Italian Fascism:

Suffering from popular agitation, post-war Italy appeared to be heading toward socialism. Mussolini’s fascists promised to eliminate the socialist threat in favor of a populist movement that won support from wealthy and poor alike. Marching on Rome with his black-shirt shock troops, Mussolini used intimidation to gain the position of prime minister. Using his influence to move Italy to one-party rule, Mussolini’s government served as a model for seizing power and deflecting socialist revolution.

   German Nazism:

Sent to observe a new nationalist group, Adolf Hitler soon rose to command it. Hotly nationalistic, the Nazis combined anti-capitalism, anti-Semitism, and repudiation of the Versailles Agreement. Arrested for trying to seize power, Hitler went to jail and wrote Mein Kampf . Turning to a new approach, the Nazis began to build support among those suffering under terrible inflation. Success at the polls eventually ushered Hitler into power as chancellor. Fanning fears of a Communist conspiracy, he expanded his power to that of dictator. Crushing dissent and attacking Jews, he asserted the ideas of a pure race in Germany. A restored economy and pride in Germany won Hitler support. Pronouncing the rise of the Third Reich, Hitler set his sights on global conquest.

   Militarist Japan:

Japan prospered during World War I and moved from a debtor nation to a creditor nation. Economic development astounded observers. Liberal democratic reforms were adopted, expanding the ranks of voters. At the same time, however, fear of communism justified repressive measures against leftist organizations. Under Emperor Hirohito’s rule, economic difficulties produced unemployment, prompting military leaders to ignore policies of the civilian government. Violence, at the hand of patriotic societies and young military officers, intimidated government leaders. Expansionism could not be restrained as the military began to conquer parts of China without the approval of Japan’s government.

   Common Features:

Each of these regimes shared certain common features. All rejected parliamentary rule. All espoused state involvement in controlling the economy. All employed mass organizations and focused on rallying the youth. All but one (Japan) employed large-scale welfare programs and policy. All asserted traditional roles for women out of the public realm, while struggling to enforce their ideal. All employed terror against their own citizens, colonial subjects, and foreigners. All successfully mobilized popular support. All also generated admirers and imitators elsewhere.

The Hybrid Nature of Latin American Corporatism

Latin American states employed elements from democracy and authoritarianism to solve their problems. Falling exports during World War I stimulated radical movements. The Depression brought state intervention into Latin American economies. Corporatist alliances, such as that of Vargas in Brazil, united elites and mass organizations to help maintain elite positions by building support through popular policies and paternal concern for the masses.

Anti-Colonial Visions of Modern Life

In the colonies, what to do about imperialism overshadowed questions regarding the relative benefits of democracy or authoritarianism. After World War I, Britain had more colonies than ever. While extending self-rule privileges to white-dominated territories, nonwhite areas were denied such privileges. To African and Asian intelligentsia, throwing off the colonial yoke first required some form of nationalism. Some nationalists believed in constructing democracy while others turned to fascism or communism. They also drew from their traditional culture for inspiration regarding the new modern order they sought to create. Ultimately, how long imperialism had dominated and to what degree it dominated greatly impacted the outcome of the anti-colonial movement.

   African Stirrings:

Still in the process of constructing their movements, African anti-colonialists wondered whether European offers of modernity were sincere or merely a ruse to extract more. Largely excluded from the political arena, Africans began testing the limits of French and British rule with protests, strikes, and boycotts. Europeanized African elites, however, often sided with the imperialists rather than the protesters.

   Imagining an Indian Nation:

Already quite articulate by the early twentieth century, Indian anti-colonialism provided a model for other movements to emulate. Excluded from politics and angered by British atrocities, Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress into a mass movement dedicated to Indian self-determination through nonviolent means. The Salt March attracted millions and won international acclaim. While Nehru gave support, Gandhi’s methods did not appeal to radicals or to Muslims. Rebuffed in elections, Jinnah moved to build the Muslim League into its own nation, separate from India and in contrast to the more Hindu-flavored Indian National Congress. Nationalist goals overshadowed all others, including attempts by women to gain political rights. Nevertheless, by the time Britain began to open the political sphere, Indian unity had split.

   Chinese Nationalism:

Like the others, Chinese nationalists sought to oust imperialists in order to build a strong, modern state. Following the Qing collapse in 1911, power fell from Sun Yat-sen to military strongman Yuan Shikai, before his death fragmented political power. Student protests prompted Sun to revive his Guomindang party and to cooperate with the Russians to defeat imperialism. Chiang Kai-shek, who succeeded Sun, again unified China before breaking with the Russians and building a modern culture based on Confucianism and fascism.

   Peasant Populism in China: The White Wolf:

The Guomindang did not, however, implement any changes in the countryside. There, a grassroots movement arose largely unchallenged. White Wolf earned popular support by plaguing the rich while giving to the poor. White Wolf’s success demonstrated the power of working with peasants and the limited ability of the Guomindang to reach China’s rural masses.

   A Post-Imperial Turkish Nation:

No anti-colonial and modernizing movement succeeded in the 1920s and 1930s like that of Turkey. Fearful that Ottoman collapse would reduce Turkey to a colony, Turkish nationalists rallied to create a modern nation-state. War and negotiation opened the way for modernization and a democratic government based on secular law rather than Muslim conventions. State involvement in the economy, racial theories, and secret police emerged to ensure success.

   The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt:

In Egypt, nationalism surged when Zaghlul was forbidden to present the Egyptian case at the Versailles Peace Conference. British efforts to pacify popular anger only exacerbated tensions, leading to some Egyptian independence in 1922, but under British watch. During the Great Depression, Egypt’s liberal system fell to the Muslim Brotherhood, which denounced liberalism and communism while calling for a return to Islam.