Chapter 10 : Gender Inequality

Gender Differences: Nature versus Nurture

  Sex in the sense of physical difference is distinct from gender (masculine and feminine), which concerns cultural and psychological differences. It is no simple matter to determine which observable differences are due to biology (sex) and which are socially constructed (gender). Arguments from animal behavior are usually ambiguous. Some researchers claim, for instance, that hormones explain such differences as greater male aggressiveness, but it may just as easily be the case that aggressive behavior causes changes in hormone levels. Studies of gender differences from a variety of human societies have shown no conclusive evidence that gender is biologically determined; rather, biological differences seem to provide a means of marking or differentiating social roles.

  Studies of parent-infant interactions reveal that boys and girls are treated differently right from birth; the same features and behaviors are interpreted as either "masculine" or "feminine" depending on the parents' expectations.

Forms of Gender Inequality

  Patriarchy refers to male dominance over women. There are few known societies that are not patriarchal, although the degree and character of inequalities between the sexes varies considerably across cultures. In the United States, women have made considerable progress yet are still unequal in many ways.

  Women's participation in the paid labor force has risen steadily, especially married women's and especially in expanding areas of the economy. Many women, however, are poorly paid and have dim career prospects. Even women who are successful in the corporate world face discrimination in the form of deeply held cultural expectations about the proper role of women in society.

  The increasing number of women in the labor force has had a big impact on family responsibilities like child care and housework. Though men are contributing more to these responsibilities, women still shoulder the bulk of the work. For working women, these household obligations constitute a "second shift."

  The ways schools are organized and how classes are taught have tended to sustain gender inequalities . Rules specifying distinct dress for girls and boys encourages sex typing, as do the texts containing established gender images. There is evidence that teachers treat girls and boys differently, and there is a long history of specialized subjects for separate sexes.

Violence Against Women

  Violence perpetrated by men against women is found in many societies-in the form of spousal abuse, rape, and sexual harassment, for example. The most common manifestation of violence against women is rape , which is the forcing of nonconsensual intercourse. Some scholars argue that women are often the targets of sexual violence because men are socialized to see women as sex objects and to feel a sense of sexual entitlement to women.

Gender Inequality Throughout the World

  Women throughout the world work in the lowest-wage jobs, and are likely to make less than men doing similar work-although there is some evidence that the wage gap is decreasing slowly, at least in industrialized countries. In developing countries, women are likely to experience exploitative job conditions. Yet at the same time, their enhanced economic role has sometimes resulted in increased economic independence and greater social status.

  Worldwide, women do not share the same political power as men, although thirty-eight countries have been headed by a woman since World War II. The United States is about average among countries in terms of women's representation in the national legislature, but has never had a woman president.

  Gender is one of the most important dimensions of inequality, although it was neglected in the study of stratification for a long time. Although there are few societies in which women have more wealth and status than men, there are significant variations in how women's and men's roles are valued within a society. Sociologists have argued that gender inequalities are not fixed. They have also drawn attention to the links between gender inequality and race and class.

Theories of Gender Inequality

  In explaining gender inequality, functionalists have emphasized that gender differences and the sexual division of labor contribute to social stability and integration. Feminist approaches reject the idea that gender inequality is somehow natural. Liberal feminists have explained gender inequality in terms of social and cultural attitudes, such as sexism and discrimination. Radical feminists argue that men are responsible for the exploitation of women through patriarchy-the systematic domination of females by males. Black feminists have seen factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to gender, as essential for understanding the oppression experienced by nonwhite women.

Back to Top