Chapter 6 : Groups, Networks, and Organizations

Social Groups

  Social groups , collections of people who share a sense of common identity and regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations, shape nearly every experience in our lives. Among the types of social groups are in-groups and out-groups, primary groups and secondary groups.

  Reference groups provide standards by which we judge ourselves in terms of how we think we appear to others, what sociologist Charles Horton Cooley termed the "looking-glass self."

  Group size is an important factor in group dynamics. Although their intensity may diminish, larger groups tend to be more stable than smaller groups of two ( dyads ) or three ( triads ). Groups of more than a dozen or so people usually develop a formal structure.

  Leaders are able to influence the behavior of the other members of a group. The most common form of leadership is transactional , that is, routine leadership concerned with getting the job done. Less common is transformational leadership , which is concerned with changing the very nature of the group itself.

  Research indicates that people are highly conformist to group pressure. Many people will do what others tell them to do, even when the consequences could involve injury to others, as demonstrated by Stanley Milgram.

  Networks constitute a broad source of relationships, direct and indirect, including connections that may be extremely important in business and politics. Women, people of color, and lower-income people typically have less access to the most influential economic and political networks than do white males in American society.

Organizations

  The physical settings of organizations strongly influence their social features. The architecture of modern organizations is closely connected to surveillance as a means of securing obedience to those in authority. Surveillance refers to the supervision of people's activities, as well as to the keeping of .les (files)  and records about them.

  Informal networks tend to develop at all levels both within and between organizations. The study of these informal ties is as important as the more formal characteristics on which Weber concentrated his attention.

  The physical settings of organizations strongly influence their social features. The architecture of modern organizations is closely connected to surveillance as a means of securing obedience to those in authority. Surveillance refers to the supervision of people's activities, as well as to the keeping of .les and records about them.

Theories of Organizations

  The work of Weber and Michels identifies a tension between bureaucracy and democracy. On the one hand, long-term processes of the centralization of decision making are associated with the development of modern societies. On the other hand, one of the main features of the past two centuries has been expanding pressures toward democracy. The trends conflict, with neither one in a position of dominance.

Gender and Organizations

  Modern organizations have evolved as gendered institutions. Women have traditionally been segregated into certain occupational categories that support the ability of men to advance their careers. In recent years, women have been entering professional and managerial positions in greater numbers, but some believe that women have to adopt a traditionally male management style in order to succeed at top levels.

Alternatives to Bureaucracy

  Large organizations have started to restructure themselves over recent years to become less bureaucratic and more flexible. Many Western firms have adopted aspects of Japanese management systems: more consultation of lower-level workers by managerial executives; pay and responsibility linked to seniority; and groups, rather than individuals, evaluated for their performance.

  New information technology is changing the way in which organizations work. Many tasks can now be completed electronically, a fact that allows organizations to transcend time and space. The physical boundaries of organizations are being eroded by the capabilities of new technology. Many organizations now work as loose networks, rather than as self-contained independent units.

Global Organizations

  Two important forms of global organization are international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) . Both play an increasingly important role in the world today, and IGOs-particularly the United Nations-may become key organizational actors as the pace of globalization increases.

Social Capital

  Social capital refers to the knowledge and connections that enable people to cooperate with one another for mutual benefit and extend their influence. Some social scientists have argued that social capital has declined in the United States during the last quarter century, a process they worry indicates a decline in Americans' commitment to civic engagement.

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