Full Contents
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- 1 Matter and Its Origins
- 1.1 Classes and Properties of Matter
- 1.2 Creation of Matter
- The Scientific Method
- The Big Bang
- 1.3 Light waves
- The Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Wavelength, Frequency and Energy
- Shifting Wavelengths and the Doppler Effect
- 1.4 Measurements in Scientific Studies
- SI Units
- Significant Figures
- Precision and Accuracy
- 1.5 Matter and Energy
- Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive Decay Rates
- The Formation of Nuclei
- 1.6 Temperature Scales and a Cooling Universe
- Then Came Atoms
- Cold Microwaves
- Continuum Radiation
- 2 Nuclear Chemistry and the Origins of the Elements
- 2.1 Hydrogen Fusion
- 2.2 Nuclear Binding Energies
- 2.3 Neutron Capture and Modes of Radioactive Decay
- 2.4 Supernova: Radiochemistry of the Heaviest Elements
- 2.5 Artificial Isotopes and Elements
- 2.6 Measuring Radioactivity
- 2.7 Biological Effects of Radiation
- Ionizing Radiation and Living Matter
- Radiation Dosage
- Assessing the Risks of Radiation
- Radiation Therapy
- Box: The Chemistry of Radon, Radium, and Uranium
- Medical Imaging with Radionuclides
- 2.8 Radiochemical Dating
- 2.9 The Composition of the Universe
- 3 Electrons and Electromagnetic Radiation
- 3.1 The Fraunhofer Lines
- 3.2 Electrons in Atoms
- 3.3 Particles of Light
- 3.4 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
- 3.5 Matter Waves
- 3.6 Schr–dinger’s Wave Equation
- 3.7 Quantum Numbers
- 3.8 Shapes and Sizes of Atomic Orbitals
- 3.9 Spinning Electrons
- 3.10 The Periodic Table and Filling in the Orbitals
- Box: The Chemistry of the Noble Gases
- 3.11 More Evidence for the Existence of Atomic Orbitals
- Ionization Energies
- X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
- 3.12 The Uncertainty Principle
- 4 Stoichiometry and the Composition of the Earth
- 4.1 The Composition of Earth
- 4.2 The Composition of Compounds
- 4.3 Naming Compounds
- Binary Molecular Compounds
- Naming Ionic Compounds
- Binary Compounds of Transition Metals
- Polyatomic Ions
- 4.4 Chemical Reactions and the Mole
- Box: The Chemistry of the Alkali Metals
- 4.5 Completing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- 4.6 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas
- 4.7 Stoichiomentric Calculations and the Carbon Cycle
- 4.8 Limiting Reactants and Percent Yields
- 5 Solution Chemistry and the Hydrosphere
- 5.1 Earth: The Water Planet
- 5.2 Solution Concentration and Molarity
- 5.3 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
- 5.4 Colligative Properties of Solutions
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression
- The van’t Hoff Factor
- Measuring Molar Mass
- 5.5 Introduction to Oxidation-Reduction Processes
- Oxidation Numbers
- Balancing Redox Reactions
- 5.6 Acid-Base Reactions and Net Ionic Equations
- Box: The Chemistry of the Alkaline Earth Metals
- 5.7 Precipitation Reactions
- 5.8 Ion Exchange
- 5.9 Titrations
- 5.10 Colloids
- 6 Chemical Bonding and Atmospheric Molecules
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Electron Sharing
- 6.3 Lewis Structures
- 6.4 Unequal Sharing
- 6.5 Electronegativity and Other Periodic Properties of the Elements
- 6.6 More Lewis Structures
- The Structure of Ozone
- Resonance
- Holes in the Ozone Layer
- Box: The Chemistry of the Halogens
- 6.7 Choosing Between Lewis Structures: Formal Charges
- 6.8 Electron Diffraction, Bond Lengths, and Predictions Confirmed
- 6.9 Molecular-Orbital Theory
- The Molecular Orbitals of H2
- Nitrogen and Oxygen
- Ultraviolet and Visible Spectra and Auroras
- 7 Molecular Shape and the Greenhouse Effect
- 7.1 Bond Vibration and Climate Change
- 7.2 Infrared Spectropscopy
- 7.3 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- Box: The Chemistry of Oxygen and the Group 6A Elements
- 7.4 The Molecular-Orbital Diagram of Nitric Oxide
- 7.5 Electron-Spin Resonance: Locating Unpaired Electrons
- 7.6 Molecular Shape: The VSEPR Model
- Tetrahedra of Electrons
- Triangles of Electrons
- Linear Molecular Geometry
- Shapes of Expanded-Octet Molecules
- Summary
- 7.7 Valence-Bond Theory
- Hybrid Orbitals
- Hybrid Orbitals for Beryllium and Boron
- 7.8 Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules
- 7.9 Molecular Vibration and Infrared Absorption
- 8 Properties of Gases and the Air That We Breathe
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 The Atmosphere: A Molecular View
- Boyle’s Law
- The Combined Gas Law
- 8.3 The Ideal-Gas Law
- 8.4 Gas Density
- 8.5 Dalton’s Law and Mixtures of Gases
- 8.6 Henry’s Law and the Solubility of Gases
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 5A Elements
- 8.7 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases and Graham’s Law
- 8.8 Real Gases
- 9 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids: Water, Nature’s Universal Solvent
- 9.1 Sea Spray and the States of Matter
- 9.2 Ion-Ion Interactions and Lattice Energy
- 9.3 Interactions of Polar Molecules
- 9.4 Dispersion Forces
- 9.5 Polarity and Solubility
- 9.6 Vapor Pressure
- Vapor Pressure of Solutions: a Molecular View
- Vapor Pressure and Solute Concentration
- Vapor Pressure and Temperature
- 9.7 Phase Diagrams: Intermolecular Forces at Work
- 9.8 The Remarkable Behavior of Water
- 10 The Solid State: A Molecular View of Gems and Minerals
- 10.1 Crystal Lattices
- Crystalline versus Amorphous
- X-Ray Diffraction
- 10.2 The Unit Cell
- 10.3 Packing Efficiency
- Cubic Closest Packing
- Simple Cubic Packing
- Hexagonal Closest Packing
- 10.4 Network Solids: The Many Forms of Silica
- Orthosilicates
- Metasilicates
- 10.5 Allotropes of Carbon and Sulfur
- 10.6 Metallic Bonds and Structures
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 4A Elements
- 10.7 Gemstones: An Introduction to Crystal Field Theory
- Crystal Field Splitting Energy
- Magnetic Properties
- 11 Thermochemistry and The Quest for Energy
- 11.1 An Historical Perspective
- 11.2 Energy: Some Definitions
- 11.3 Natural Gas
- 11.4 Combustion and Energy Transfer
- 11.5 Enthalpy (H) and Enthalpy Changes (ΔH)
- 11.6 Heating Curves and Heat Capacity
- Hot Soup on a Winter Hike
- Cold Drinks on a Hot Day
- 11.7 Estimating ΔH from Bond Energies
- 11.8 Calorimetry: Measuring Heats of Combustion
- 11.9 Enthalpies of Formation and Reaction
- 11.10 Fuel Values
- 11.11 Hess’s Law
- 12 Energy and Organic Chemistry
- 12.1 Petroleum Refining: Fractional Distillation and Raoult’s Law
- 12.2 Alkanes in Gasoline and Structural Isomerism
- Cycloalkanes
- Structural Isomerism and Octane Ratings
- Rules for Naming Alkanes
- 12.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- 12.4 Alcohols, Ethers, and Reformulated Gasoline
- 12.5 Carbohydrates
- Molecular Strcutures of Glucose and Other Sugars
- Condensation Reactions
- Starch and Cellulose
- 12.6 More Fuels from Biomass
- Carboxylic Acids
- Amines
- 12.7 Coal
- 12.8 Hydrogen As Fuel
- 12.9 Combustion Analysis and Elemental Composition
- 12.10 Alkanes and Alkynes
- 13 Entropy and Free Energy and Fueling the Human Engine
- 13.1 Enthalpies of Solution
- 13.2 Entropy and Why Endothermic Processes Take Place
- 13.3 Entropy Calculations
- 13.4 Free Energy
- Connecting ΔH and ΔS
- The Meaning of Free Energy
- 13.5 Fueling the Human Engine
- Carbohydrates Revisited
- Amino Acids and Proteins
- Stereoisomerism
- The Chemistry of Group 5B
- Lipids
- 13.6 The Energy Values of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
- 13.7 Driving the Human Engine
- The Chemistry of Group 7B
- 13.8 DNA and Making Proteins
- 14 Chemical Kinetics and Air Pollution
- 14.1 Photochemical Smog
- 14.2 Reaction Rates
- Average Reaction Rates and the Formation of NO
- Instantaneous Reaction Rates and the Formation of NO2
- 14.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
- Reaction Order and Initial Rates
- The Single-Experiment Approach
- Second-Order Reactions
- 14.4 Reaction Mechanisms
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 8B Metals
- 14.5 Reaction Rates, Temperature, and the Arrhenius Equation
- 14.6 Catalysis
- 15 Chemical Equilibrium and Why Smog Persists
- 15.1 Achieving Equilibrium
- 15.2 Equilibrium Constants and Reaction Quotients
- Reactions in Reverse
- K and Q for Combined Equations
- Multiplying a Chemical Equation by a Constant
- 15.3 Equilibrium in the Gas Phase and Kp
- 15.4 K, Q, and ΔG
- 15.5 Le Ch’telier’s Principle
- Box: The Chemistry of Ammonia
- 15.6 The Role of Catalysts
- 15.7 Calculations Based on K
- 15.8 Changing K with Changing Temperature
- 15.9 Heterogeneous Equilibria
- 16 Equilibrium in the Aqueous Phase and Acid Rain
- 16.1 Acid Rain and Acid Strength
- Weak and Strong Acids
- Diprotic Acids
- 16.2 Acids and Bases: A Molecular View
- Acids in Water
- Bases in Water
- Lewis Acids and Bases
- Conjugate Pairs
- 16.3 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure
- Box: The Chemistry of Two Strong Acids: Sulfuric and Nitric Acids
- 16.4 The Concept of pH
- The pH Scale
- The pH of "Natural" and Acid Rain
- pOH
- 16.5 The pH of Solutions of Acidic and Basic Salts
- 16.6 Buffer Solution and the pH of Natural Waters
- 16.7 Acid-Base Indicators
- 16.8 Acid-Base Titrations
- 16.9 Solubilities of Minerals and Other Compounds
- 16.10 Complex Ions
- Complexation and Solubility
- Metal Complexes in Biomolecules
- 17 Electrochemistry and Electrical Energy
- 17.1 Voltaic Cells
- 17.2 Voltage and Free Energy
- 17.3 The Chemistries of Some Common Batteries
- Dry Cells
- Alkaline Batteries
- Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
- 17.4 Standard Potentials and Batteries for Laptops
- Cell Potentials
- A Reference Point: The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
- Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
- Lithium-Ion Batteries
- 17.5 The Effect of Concentration on Potential
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 2B Elements
- 17.6 Quantities of Reactants and Battery Power
- 17.7 Electrolytic Cells and Recharging Batteries
- 17.8 "Low Emission" Vehicles and More Voltaic Devices
- Hybrid Vehicles
- Fuel Cells
- Photochemical Cells
- Biochemical Fuel Cells
- 18 Materials Chemistry: Past, Present, and Future
- 18.1 Metals
- The Age of Copper
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 1B Elements
- The Bronze Age
- The Iron Revolution
- Aluminum Alloys: Lightweight and High-Performance
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 3A Elements: Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 4B Metals: Ti, Zr, and Hf
- 18.2 Ceramics
- Made of Clay
- Making Ceramics
- Superconducting Ceramics
- Box: The Chemistry of the Group 3B and the Lanthanides
- 18.3 Semiconductors
- 18.4 Fibers for Clothing and Other Uses
- Natural Fibers
- Synthetic Polymers from Condensation Reactions
- Synthetic Polymers from Addition Reactions
- 18.5 The Scientific Method Revisited
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