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Introduction

• Causality is the idea that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another factor.
• Research methods are standard rules that social scientists follow when trying to establish a causal relationship between social elements. Quantitative methods seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form. Qualitative methods attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form.

Research 101: The Basics

• Sociological research generally begins with a question that asks what causes a certain social phenomenon to occur.
• Using a deductive approach to research, we start with a theory, develop a hypothesis, make empirical observations, and then analyze the data collected through observation to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory. Using an inductive approach to research, we start with empirical observation and then work to form a theory.
• Correlation exists when we simply observe change in two things simultaneously; causation exists when we can prove that a change in one factor causes the change in the other factor.
• Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation. In order to prove causation, researchers need to establish correlation and time order, and they need to rule out alternative explanations.
• A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is trying to explain; an independent variable is a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable.
• In social research, a hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables. For all hypotheses, both a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis exist.
• Operationalization is the process by which a researcher specifies the terms and methods he or she will use in a particular study.
• Moderating variables are factors that affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; mediating variables are factors that are positioned between the independent and dependent variables but do not affect the relationship between them.
• Measures used to evaluate variables in a hypothesis must be valid and reliable, and the outcomes of a particular research study must be generalizable to a larger population.
• Researchers must be aware of the effects they have on the people, relationships, and processes they are studying.
• Feminist methodology treats women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources, promotes social science that may bring about policy change to help women, and is as conscious of the role of the researcher as that of the subject(s) being studied.
• Participant observation, interviews, survey research, historical methods, comparative research, experimentation, and content analysis are all types of data collection used in social research.

Ethics of Social Research

• Researchers must meet codified standards, often set by professional associations, academic institutions, or research centers when conducting studies.
• Researchers must guard against causing physical, emotional, or psychological harm to their subjects. By adhering to informed consent and voluntary participation guidelines, researchers can make sure their subjects know they are participating in a study and have voluntarily chosen to participate.
• Public sociology refers to the practice of using sociological research, teaching, and service to reach a wider (not solely academic) audience and to influence society.

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