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- There are several different foundations of the sense
of self, or self-concept. The self originates in part from
biologically based dispositions inherited from parents,
as well as from family birth order. Firstborns
tend to be more assertive and achievement-oriented;
later borns tend be more open to experience and
cooperative.
- The self is shaped by the social context, with people
using social comparison to learn about their own abilities,
attitudes, and personal traits.
- According to the distinctiveness hypothesis, people in
Western cultures tend to define themselves according
to what is unique about themselves compared to
others in the social context.
- The self is profoundly shaped by whether people
live in independent or interdependent cultures.
- Gender also affects how people define themselves,
with women generally emphasizing their relationships
and defining themselves in an interdependent
way, and men generally emphasizing their uniqueness
and construing themselves in an independent
way.
- There are several forms and functions of self-knowledge.
Self-knowledge can take the form of
beliefs, images, memories, and stories we tell about
our lives. This self-knowledge helps guide construal
of social information, through memories and self-schemas,
typically reinforcing preexisting beliefs
about the self.
- Self-knowledge embodies cultural and moral standards,
and it motivates appropriate behavior. Self-discrepancy
theory investigates how people compare
their actual selves to their ideal and ought selves.
- Self-knowledge varies across cultures. In independent
cultures, people use their self-knowledge as standards
in judging others. They tend to have
unrealistically positive beliefs about themselves, an
illusion of control, and unrealistic optimism, which
all enhance their sense of well-being. In interdependent
cultures, other people rather than the self
serve as standards for social judgment, and there is
less evidence of self-illusions.
- There are two kinds of self-esteem: trait self-esteem,
which tends to be a stable part of identity, and state
self-esteem, which changes according to different
contextual factors, such as personal failure or the
loss of a beloved sports team.
- The motivation to have elevated self-esteem guides
the formation of friendships that allow one to
engage in favorable social comparisons and esteem-enhancing
pride taken in the friend's successes.
- Self-esteem is more important and elevated in Western
than in East Asian cultures.
- There are perils of high self-esteem, and studies have
linked various forms of antisocial behavior with narcissistic
levels of self-esteem.
- Self-presentation theory considers the self to be a dramatic
performer in the public realm. People seek to
create and maintain a favorable public impression of
themselves. Face refers to what people want others
to think they are.
- Researchers now distinguish between private and
public self-consciousness. They have shown that people
engage in self-monitoring to ensure that their
behavior fits the demands of the social context.
- People protect their public self through self-handicapping
behaviors, which are self-defeating
behaviors that can explain away possible failure.
- Face concerns and self-presentation shape social
communication. On-record communication is direct;
off-record communication like joking and teasing is
indirect and subtle.
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