Chapter 8: Thinking and Intelligence
Chapter Review
How Does the Mind Represent Information?
1. Mental images are analogical representations: Thoughts can take the form of visual images. The primary visual cortex is activated proportionately to the size of an image in the mind's eye. Symbolic knowledge affects the ways in which we use visual imagery.
2. Concepts are symbolic representations: Concepts are mental representations of categories of subtypes and may be formed by defining attributes, prototypes, or exemplars. The boundaries of a category may be fuzzy.
3. Schemas organize useful information about the environment: We develop schemas based on our real-life experiences. Scripts are schemas that allow inferences about the sequence of events.
How Do We Make Decisions and Solve Problems?
4. People use deductive and inductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning follows from a general statement to specific applications. Syllogisms are formal structures of deduction. Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from specific instances.
5. Decision making often involves heuristics: Expected utility models assume normative, logical processes. Descriptive models highlight reasoning shortcomings-specifically the use of mental shortcuts (i.e., heuristics) that easily come to mind. We also select information to confirm our conclusions, avoid loss or regret, and to be consistent with the framing of a problem.
6. Problem solving achieves goals: Problem solving involves reaching a goal that is usually broken down into subgoals. Insights come suddenly by seeing elements of the problem in new ways. Restructuring aids solutions; mental sets and functional fixedness inhibit solutions. Unconscious processing (i.e., incubating) aids problem solving, and verbal overshadowing can confuse.
How Do We Understand Intelligence?
7. Intelligence is assessed by psychometric tests: The Binet-Simon was the first test of mental ability and lead to the concept of IQ as a ratio of mental age and chronological age. This was later normed to a distribution with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15; therefore average ability is from 85 to 115. The question of the validity of these tests persists, with cultural bias as a significant criticism.
8. General intelligence involves multiple components: Using the factor analysis of test performance, Charles Spearman concluded that a general intelligence component existed, known as g. Fluid intelligence involves problem-solving strategies whereas crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge. Howard Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that include linguistic, mathematical/ logical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal abilities. Additionally, Robert Sternberg has proposed that there are three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Finally, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotions.
9. Intelligence is associated with cognitive performance: Speed of mental processing is part of intelligence (i.e., choice reaction times and inspection times). The relationship of working memory to intelligence seems to be with regard to attention. Various components of the brain (i.e., size and activity of the frontal lobes) have been found to relate to qualities of intelligence.
10. Genes and environment both influence intelligence: Behavioral genetics has revealed the substantial influence of genetics in setting the limits of the expression of intelligence. Environmental factors, including breastfeeding, intellectual opportunities, nutrition, schooling, and parenting, seem to establish where within the genetic limits IQ falls. Assumed racial differences in intelligence based on genetics are invalid.
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