How Does Motivation Activate, Direct, and Sustain Action?
The chapter begins with a general overview of motivation and describes the four essential qualities of motivational states: They energize and direct behaviors, help the organism to persist toward a goal, and exist in varying strengths. Most motivational theories view behaviors as a way of maintaining equilibrium, and several aspects of this process (homeostasis, negative feedback model, set point) are explored. Pay special attention to the difference in emphasis between the more biologically based idea of instincts versus the psychologically based idea of needs. Both concepts involve the initiation of behavior; however, instincts focus more on unlearned, automatic actions, whereas needs allow more leeway for environmental influence. Hedonism, the tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain, is a general motivational principle that extends back at least to the time of the ancient Greeks. The idea was integrated into Freudian motivational theory with the concept of the pleasure principle. Finally, the authors present several examples of how hedonism is adaptive in that it promotes survival and reproduction.

How Do Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Factors Influence Motivation?
The next section of the chapter moves further away from the idea of motivation as simple biological instincts and considers additional environmental influences that activate and sustain behavior. We are motivated by extrinsic factors such as incentives and rewards. However, we also are motivated by extrinsic factors such as incentives and rewards. However, we also are motivated by intrinsic factors such as novelty, play, and creativity. A surprising research finding in this area is Mark Lepper's contention that rewards can actually undermine intrinsically motivated behavior. Psychological scientists continue to investigate the ramifications of this for education, business, and child-rearing. Individuals are also motivated to attain personal goals, and the self-regulation of behavior is the process by which people initiate, adjust, or stop actions in this pursuit. Goals that are challenging, difficult, and specific seem to be the most productive. They also give rise to feelings of self-efficacy or the expectancy that your efforts will lead to success. Self-awareness of one's personal standards also serves to regulate behavior. The process of deindividuation occurs when self-awareness is low, and it can result in some surprising disinhibited behavior (e.g., spring break, athletic events). Finally, the self-regulatory process of delay of gratification is investigated. The understanding of this crucial, adaptive function has increased with recent advances in behavioral neuroscience.

What Neural Systems Are Involved in Motivation?
The idea of neural mechanisms underlying motivation is continued in the next section, and the authors give you an idea of where future research in motivation is headed. Dopamine reward pathways strongly influence motivation as they satisfy drive states. Structures in the limbic system are involved in emotion, and the hypothalamus regulates several survival behaviors. Damage to the hypothalamus results in problems with eating, aggression, and sexual behavior. The frontal lobes are strongly involved in formulating goals, plans, and strategies. A fascinating research finding discussed in this section is Antonio Damasio's work on somatic markers that influence decision making. There are numerous examples in literature and contemporary language of going with your gut feeling instead of clearly rational processes when making decisions. Damasio's work supports the idea that there is a bodily reaction that occurs when contemplating outcomes and that these feelings serve an adaptive function. It just feels right!

What Factors Motivate Human Eating Behavior?
Eating is presented as a basic motivational behavior that is strongly biologically based for survival; however, it also is heavily influenced by cultural factors. The motivation for variety ensures a healthy diet, but acquired taste aversions protect us from potential danger. The hypothalamus is the brain area with the greatest influence on eating, and damage to this structure can result in severe overeating (hyperphagia) or undereating (aphagia). The influence of the brain on eating is particularly evident in gourmand syndrome, in which neural damage results in an obsession with food and its preparation. The conflict between scientific data on eating and societal views is seen with the stigma of obesity. In addition, extreme standards of thinness that are presented in the media are difficult, if not impossible, for most people to obtain. This can lead to the dangerous and mostly futile behavior of dieting. Fewer than 1% of individuals who lose weight are able to maintain it over 5 years. Part of this is attributable to the body's tendency to maintain a set point as a natural defense against weight loss. In addition, chronic dieters or restrained eaters tend to easily abandon their diets and go on bouts of overeating. Finally, chronic dieting and incorporation of unrealistic societal messages can lead one to develop the eating disorders of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder.

What Is Sleep?
The final section of the chapter has a more detailed look at the complex topic of sleep. When one considers the amount of time we engage in this activity, it is truly surprising that most of the scientific information on sleep is fairly recent. Sleep is an altered state of consciousness that is initiated by biological processes. Our brain waves become slower and more rhythmic as we progress from stage 1 to stage 4 sleep. After about 90 min of sleep, we venture into the cycle of REM sleep, also known as paradoxical sleep because of the discrepancy between a sleeping body and an activated brain. Although many view it as a nuisance, sleep appears to be an important survival behavior. Restorative theory suggests that sleep allows the body to rest and repair itself. Circadian rhythm theory proposes that sleep keeps animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when they are in greatest danger. Substantial research also indicates that sleep is important for the consolidation of learning. Students should pay particular attention to the research finding that learning new information occurs only after 6 hr of sleep. This brings into question the efficiency of cramming all night for an exam. Finally, the chapter investigates the perplexing topic of dreaming, which, like all of sleeping, is highly regulated by biological factors. The brain actually sends signals to paralyze the body during REM sleep that aid in preventing us from acting out our dreams. People have been interested in the meaning of dreams since ancient times, and there are many historical examples of discoveries and decisions made on the basis of them. Three dream theories are presented along with their supporting evidence. It is interesting that the Freudian theory of dream analysis, which is very well known among the general public, has virtually no scientific support.

Table 9.1: Theories of Dream Interpretation
Dream Theory	Proposed Meaning of Dreams
Sigmund Freud	symbolic representation of hidden conflicts
Activation–synthesis hypothesis	mind making sense of random neural firings
Evolved threat rehearsal	allow people to rehearse coping strategies