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factor analysis A statistical method for studying the interrelations among various tests, the object of which is to discover what the tests have in common and whether these communalities can be ascribed to one or several factors that run through all or some of these tests.
false alarm A response indicating that a signal is present when it is not. Cases include hearing tones that are not presented, or concluding that a suspect is guilty when she is in fact innocent.
family resemblance structure Overlap of features among members of a category such that no members of the category have all of the features but all members have some of them.
feature detectors Neurons in the retina or brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as movement, orientation, and so on.
feature net A model of pattern recognition in which there is a network of detectors, with feature detectors at the bottom.
Fechner's law The assertion that the strength of a sensation is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity.
feedback A system in which an action produces some consequence that affects (feeds back on) the action. In negative feedback, the consequence stops or reverses the action (e.g., thermostat-controlled furnace). In positive feedback, the consequence strengthens the action (e.g., rocket that homes in on airplanes).
fetus The stage in gestation following the embryonic stage. In humans, from about eight weeks until birth.
FI schedule See fixed-interval (FI) schedule.
figure The object focused on, with the rest of the stimulus input considered merely as "background" (see ground). By virtue of being focused on, the figure gains certain other attributes: it is seen as having distinct edges, for example, while the same edges merely mark places that the ground drops from view. See figure-ground organization.
figure-ground organization The segregation of the visual field into a part (the figure) that stands out against the rest (the ground).
file-drawer problem A tendency for disappointing or negative results not to be reported (and so merely dumped into a file drawer). This tendency can cause a bias in the pattern of evidence available.
fissures Deep grooves in the brain, between convolutions, or in some cases marking the boundaries between large structures.
5HT See serotonin.
5-hydroxy-tryptamine See serotonin.
fixation (1) In problem solving, the result of rigid mental sets that makes it difficult for people to approach a problem in new and different ways. (2) In Freud's theory of personality, the lingering attachment to an earlier stage of pleasure seeking, even after a new stage has been attained.
fixed-interval (FI) schedule A pattern of rewards in which an organism can earn some reinforcement only after a certain time period (the interval) has elapsed. After that time period, the very next response will be rewarded. In a fixed-interval one-minute schedule, for example, any responses during the initial minute will not be rewarded. The very first response after the minute will be rewarded.
fixed-ratio (FR) schedule A pattern of rewards in which an organism can earn some reinforcement only by producing a certain number of responses. In a fixed-ratio 5 schedule, for example, the animal must respond five times in order to be rewarded.
flashbulb memories Vivid, detailed memories said to be produced by unexpected and emotionally important events.
fluent aphasias A syndrome derived from a specific form of brain damage, in which the person seems able to produce speech but is unable to understand what is said to her. In most cases, the sentences produced by the person make little sense, consisting instead of "word salad."
fluid intelligence The ability, which is said to decline with age, to deal with essentially new problems. See also crystallized intelligence.
Flynn effect An effect observed worldwide over the last several decades in which IQ scores seem to be rising.
fMRI scan See functional MRI (fMRI) scan.
follicles Ova-containing sacs in the mammalian ovary.
foot-in-the-door technique A technique of persuasion, initially used by door-to-door salespeople, in which one first obtains a small concession that then makes it easier to persuade the target to make a subsequent, larger concession.
forebrain In mammals, the bulk of the brain. Its foremost region includes the cerebral hemispheres; its rear includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.
forgetting curve A curve showing the inverse relationship between memory and the retention interval.
formal operations period In Piaget's theory, the period from about age eleven on, when genuinely abstract mental operations (e.g., the ability to entertain hypothetical possibilities) can be undertaken.
fovea The area of the retina on which an image falls when the viewer is looking directly at the source of the image. Acuity is greater when the image falls on the fovea than it is when it falls on any other portion of the retina.
framing A heuristic that affects the subjective desirability of an event by changing the standard of reference for judging the desirability (e.g., by comparing all outcomes to the worst-possible result, rather than comparing them to the best-possible result).
fraternal twins Twins that arise from two different eggs that are (simultaneously) fertilized by different sperm cells. Their genetic similarity is no greater than that between ordinary siblings. See also identical twins.
free association Method used in psychoanalytic therapy in which the patient is to say anything that comes to her mind, no matter how apparently trivial, unrelated, or embarrassing.
free recall A test of memory that asks for as many items in a list as a research participant can recall regardless of order.
frequency (1) In sound waves or light waves, the number of wave peaks per second. In sound, frequency governs the perceived pitch of the sound; in light, frequency governs the perceived hue of the light. (2) In statistical analysis, the number of occurrences of a particular observation.
frequency distribution An arrangement in which scores are tabulated by how often they occur.
frequency theory The proposal that the perception of a tone's pitch is coded by the rate of firing of neurons in the auditory system. This proposal is probably correct for the perception of lower pitches, but certainly false for higher pitches.
frontal lobe The lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that includes the prefrontal area and the motor projection areas.
FR schedule See fixed-ration (FR) schedule.
functional MRI (fMRI) scan An adaptation of the standard MRI procedures that can measure fast-changing physiology (mostly blood flow and oxygen use) within the brain.
function morphemes Words or parts of words that help specify the relations among words. Examples include the –s morpheme in English used to mark plurals, the –ed morpheme which marks the past tense, or the word will, used to mark future tense. See also content morphemes.
fundamental attribution error The tendency to attribute behaviors to dispositional qualities while underrating the role of the situation. See also actor-observer difference.
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