Chapter 16: Alternative Visions of the Nineteenth Century
Chapter Summary
Prophetic crusades of the nineteenth century, such as Wovoka’s Ghost Dancers, rose to challenge the spread of a modernity featuring French and American revolutionary ideals, capitalism, nation-states, technology, and industry.
Reactions to Social and Political Change
By the nineteenth century, changes across the globe had deeply disrupted older orders. As societies changed and secularized, many questioned the value of moving into a new Westerndominated world. The spectrum of alternatives ranged widely. Some struggled to fend off Western influence even though they avoided direct colonization. Others, especially marginalized Europeans, found themselves caught in the middle of tremendous change and sought a Socialist solution. Still others wrestled with colonization. All opposed authority and drew inspiration from cultural traditions to protect their local communities. At the same time, all proposed change as they struggled to redefine their new role on the edges of the developing world.
Prophecy and Revitalization in the Islamic World and Africa
Western-styled reform and economic development in the Islamic heartland spawned resentment along the edges of the Islamic world. It also stimulated reaction in non-Islamic Africa. Alarmed that Christian European influence was encroaching upon their societies, religious leaders arose to call for revitalization of traditional culture.
ISLAMIC REVITALIZATION
Revitalization rejected westernization, proposing instead theocratic polities to implement Allah’s will, fight unbelievers, and purify Islamic culture. The Wahhabi Movement targeted the secularizing Ottoman state by demanding a return to “pure” Islam and attacking any who would not follow. Not persuaded, the Egyptians helped suppress the disturbances. In West Africa, the Fulani produced similar responses, particularly that of Usman dan Fodio’s movement, which challenged the Hausa rulers and spread Islam throughout norther Nigeria. With the support of warrior women and educated women, the Fulani became very successful in Nigeria.
CHARISMATIC MILITARY MEN AND PROPHETS IN NON-ISLAMIC AFRICA
Non-Islamic Africa also saw new political movements although they were not based on religion so much as “big men” traditions. Employing fear, violence, and discipline, Shaka’s centralized Zulu state was so successful against enemies that other states were forced to centralize their power. Incorporating defeated peoples into his own system, Shaka successfully expanded clan and ethnic ties. With time, central and southern Africa came to host large polities that reshaped the political landscape.
Prophecy and Rebellion in China
Rising Western influence in China, reversing economic fortunes, and social problems associated with the opium trade all signaled the Qing’s inability to curb foreign influence. Sensing China was due for a change, Hong Xiuquan moved to restore China’s greatness by rejecting the Confucian order in favor of one based on quasi-Christian ideals and Buddhist/ Daoist views of egalitarianism and millenarianism.
THE DREAM
After failing the Confucian exam, Hong dreamed of an encounter with various heavenly figures and personalities. Connecting this experience with Christian beliefs, Hong interpreted it to mean that God the Father and Jesus Christ had commanded him to rid the world of evil and demons.
THE REBELLION
Calling for a restored society of egalitarianism and justice, Hong built a following among poor and marginalized Chinese. Gradually Hong’s followers blamed the Qing Manchu “demons” that infested China, attacked the government, and destroyed icons of Confucianism. Tens of thousands joined Hong’s movement and its new social order, which was based on Bible teachings, equality of the sexes, common property, and strict restrictions on “indulgences.” Qing efforts to defeat the Taipings in 1850 only dislodged them, precipitating a bloody trek to Nanjing where they ruled for ten years before falling to factionalism and combined Qing and Western forces. Although the Taiping movement did not last, the impulse to form an alternative and just order did.
Utopians, Socialists, and Radicals in Europe
In Europe, political, social, cultural, and religious prophets rose in great numbers to challenge the dominance of monarchicalconservatives associated with the Congress of Vienna system.
RESTORATION AND RESISTANCE
After Napoleon, Europe hosted a wide variety of new ideologies. Those, plus a long tradition of religious radicalism, provided inspiring material from which to construct alternative visions of remaking European society. “Reactionaries,” like the Slavophiles, moved to reverse all the democratic and secularizing influences introduced by the French Revolution and Napoleonic era. “Liberals,” like John Stuart Mill, sought to preserve order by limiting state power while expanding that of the individual.
RADICAL VISIONS
“Radicals” wanted a total reconstruction of society in favor of one based on popular sovereignty, a prospect that frightened liberals and reactionaries into an uncomfortable alliance.
Nationalists “Nationalists,” who sought national sovereignty from the Russian, Prussian, Austrian, and Ottoman empires that controlled them, proved the least offensive form of radicals. Greek nationalists succeeded, albeit somewhat short of their goals; most others failed under the heavy hand of anxious monarchs fearful that revolutionary energies had returned.
Socialists and Communists Radicals such as Communists and Socialists pursued transformation of the economic order, dismantling of the free market system, and destruction of aristocratic privilege as a means of rectifying social problems among the poor. Despite widespread popular support, efforts to petition change from Britain’s parliament failed to gain political sanction.
Fourier and Utopian Socialism Utopian Socialism, such as that of Charles Fourier who sought to eliminate market injustice, also failed to gain headway despite articulate planning and vision. Fourier’s sharp critique of commercial society stimulated a generation of other radicals, including Karl Marx, who eventually did have an impact.
Marxism The theories of Marx and Engels, which traced economic exploitation through history, hotly condemned capitalism and predicted the emergence of a Socialist order featuring equality, liberty, and fraternity under a dictatorship of the proletariat. Although unsuccessful in his personal quest to hasten the emergence of this new world order, Marx did produce a vision that remained vibrant and persuasive to many.
Insurgencies against Colonizing and Centralizing States
In colonized regions, native peoples turned to prophets, rebellion, and charismatic leaders for ways to respond to changes transforming their local communities. As in China and the Islamic world, inspiration combined traditions of the past with completely new visions of modernity.
ALTERNATIVE TO THE EXPANDING UNITED STATES: NATIVE AMERICAN PROPHETS
Concerned about the future, many Indians followed Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa who foretold the white man’s disappearance if Indians returned to traditional rites. Like other movements, including one among the Pueblo villagers of New Mexico and another headed by Neolin, those attracted to Tenskwatawa hated the thought of changing into farmers. Visions and preaching attracted allies in a large Indian confederation but alarmed white authorities in the process. Military failure and the death of Tenskwatawa’s brother Tecumseh led to the collapse of the movement and the eventual expulsion of Amerindian peoples from the Ohio Valley.
ALTERNATIVE TO THE CENTRAL STATE: THE CASTE WAR OF YUCATAN
The expanding Mexican state prompted responses such as the Mayan revolt in the Yucatan. While affected only moderately by Spanish conquests and trading networks, the Mayans of the Yucatan struggled with a new class of white elites who dominated through sugar plantations, tax collecting, and conscription. In 1847, a popular uprising called the Caste War broke out, alarming whites. Whites were nearly driven out of the Yucatan before the arrival of the planting season caused the Mayan fighters to return home. When the war with the United States stopped, the Mexican government sent forces south and viciously crushed the movement. A residual point of resistance coalesced at Santa Cruz (Little Holy Cross), where Christian ritual and traditional Mayan beliefs blended. With time, however, the Mayan resistance could not adapt economically and its adherents were forced to work on plantations. Thus, the alternative vision of the Mayans succumbed to military pressures and hunger.
THE REBELLION OF 1857 IN INDIA
In India, contact with British colonialism stimulated native uprisings that climaxed in 1857. As in cases elsewhere, the rebels built on community loyalty and tradition to foster support for an egalitarian alternative to British dominance. Consolidating its power, the East India Company began to strip Indian aristocracy of their influence and to tax peasants directly. Replacing Indian elites as the administrators, the British began modernization programs that included the industry, military, and infrastructure needed to create a modern state. Sparked by the “greased cartridge” controversy, Indian troops revolted, slaughtered British officers, and restored the Mughal emperor. Asserting Hindu and Muslim unity, the rebels rallied all classes to rise in revolt against the British. As support for the movement blossomed, Lucknow garrison troops crowned the son of their former king. People from all classes participated as the movement lashed out at symbols of British influence. Most attackers limited their activity to localized areas and thus they did not spread or unify with other anti-British groups elsewhere in India. The rebellion was a multiclass movement, but leadership often fell to those of the lower orders who failed to expand their vision beynd a small locality. This, in conjunction with British views that the revolt had been carefully plotted out by a few devious leaders, turned the tide. British forces returned with a vengeance and crushed the rebels. Afterward, the British crown took control of India directly. Thus, this particular alternative vision for India faded, though the urge to create some alternative continued.
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