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Chapter 1: Chapter Outline

  1. Out of Africa: Theory and Debate
    1. Common African heritage
    2. Modern human exodus only 100,000 years ago
    3. Differences are mostly cultural
  2. Precursors to Modern Humans
    1. Universal creation stories vs. recent scientific discoveries
      1. Yoruba peoples' creation story
      2. Buddhists' creation story
      3. Brahmanical Vedas and the Upanishads creation story
      4. Chinese Han dynasty creation story
    2. Evolutionary Findings and Research Methods
      1. Universe 15 billion years old
      2. Earth 4.5 billion years old
      3. African apes 23 million years ago
        1. Gorillas
        2. Chimpanzees
        3. Hominids
      4. Hominid traits began to set them apart
        1. Bipedalism
        2. Ability to carry objects and use weapons
        3. Ability to control and make fire
        4. Design and use of tools
        5. Development of larger brain
        6. Language
        7. Self-awareness
      5. Hominid traits fully in place 50,000 years ago
      6. 12,000 B.C.E. marks big advance to sedentary villages
    3. Early Hominids and Adaptation
      1. Discovery of Australopithecus africanus in South Africa
        1. Six distinct species
        2. Not humans
      2. "Lucy" discovered in northern Africa
      3. To survive, hominids had to adapt and evolve
      4. Many early hominids died out
      5. No direct genetic line to modern men and women
      6. Bipedalism as great advantage
        1. Carrying food and weapons
        2. Migration out of hostile areas
      7. Reasons for walking on two legs
        1. Environmental change
      8. Advantages of bipedalism
        1. Increased options for subsistence
        2. Increased cognitive skills
        3. Allowed tool making
      9. Opposable thumbs
        1. Increased physical dexterity
      10. Increased cognition and skill made hominids excel over other primates
      11. Lived in highly social groups
        1. Bands of 25-500
        2. Hunted and gathered food
        3. Developed early communication
      12. Adapted physically and cognitively over time to changing environment
        1. Physical changes
          1. brains became larger
          2. forheads more elongated
          3. less massive jaw
          4. looked more modern
        2. Cognitive changes
          1. Ability to store and analyze information
          2. Form mental maps
          3. Learn, remember, and convey information
      13. Natural selection an advantage to those hominids with larger brains
        1. Examples in Ethiopia and Kenya
        2. Diversity among early hominids
    4. The First Humans: Homo habilis
      1. Climate change in Africa led to adaptation by hominids
        1. First appearance of Homo (true human)
          1. Large brains
          2. Systematic and large-scale tool use
      2. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
        1. Louis and Mary Leakey
        2. Intact skull of "Dear Boy"
        3. Fashioning cutting and scooping tools
        4. Passing on knowledge to offspring
        5. Homo habilis ("skillful man")
    5. Early Humans on the Move: Migration of Homo erectus
      1. Only hominid survivor was Homo erectus ("standing man")
      2. Traits that contributed to survival
        1. Extended periods of caring for young
          1. Gave infant brain time to grow
          2. Time for training by adults
          3. "Allomothering"
        2. Smooth gait allowed long-distance travel
        3. Early attempts to control environment
          1. Tools
          2. Fire
        4. Fire
          1. Heat, protection, and gathering point
          2. Cooking allowed expand diets
          3. Powerful symbol of human control of energy
      3. Hominids migrated out of Africa 1.5 million years ago
        1. Southwest Asia
        2. Indian Ocean shoreline
        3. Indian subcontinent
        4. Southeast Asia
        5. China
      4. Migration cause by huge environmental changes
        1. Ice ages in Northern Hemisphere
        2. Land bridges formed between landmasses
      5. Widespread migration of Homo erectus
        1. Java Man (1891) discovery
        2. Peking Man (early twentieth century) discovery
      6. Human evolution featured both progression and retrogressions
        1. Climate changed altered speciation (species formation)
        2. Several species could exist at same time
        3. Homo erectus not direct ancestors of Homo sapiens
  3. The First Modern Humans
    1. Homo sapiens: "Human" species Develop between 120,000 and 50,000 years ago
      1. Took millions of years to evolve
      2. Complex linguistic expression (language) last to develop
    2. Homo sapiens and Their Migration
      1. Climate change led to smaller mammals' survival
        1. Agility and speed
        2. Homo sapiens better adapted to change than Homo erectus
      2. Followed earlier migration patterns out of Africa
        1. Thrived in many areas
        2. Developed distinct regional cultures
      3. China's Shandingdong Man from 18,000 years ago
        1. Looked more like modern humans
        2. Similar brain size to modern humans
        3. Tools including bone needle
        4. Buried their dead
      4. Homo sapiens in eastern Asia
        1. Followed herds of large mammals such as mastodons
        2. Crossed ice bridge to Japan
      5. 18,000 B.C.E.: crossed land bridge Beringia to North America
        1. Broken Mammoth site in Alaska
      6. 8,000 B.C.E.: migrations by boat to North America
        1. Land bridge melted
        2. Americas cut off from rest of world
    3. Cro-Magnon Homo sapiens Replace Neanderthals
      1. Neanderthals, early wave of hominids, settled in Afro-Eurasia
      2. Not genetically related to modern Homo sapiens
      3. Skull found in Neander Valley, 1856
      4. Brain larger than modern humans' but not as complex
      5. Carleton Coon thesis (1940s) argued that the races developed separately
        1. Multiregional thesis
        2. Disproven
      6. Cro-Magnon better adapted than Neanderthals to environmental changes
        1. Neanderthals' speech limited
        2. Physical characteristics made Neanderthals less agile
        3. Cro-Magnon able to adapt
    4. Early Homo sapiens as Hunters and Gatherers
      1. Hunting and gathering until 12,000 B.C.E.
      2. San hunters of South Africa present-day hunter and gatherers
      3. Hunting and gathering culture
        1. Enough food found in 3 hours
        2. Time for relaxation
        3. Highly egalitarian between sexes
        4. Women may have enjoyed higher status
  4. Art and Language
    1. Art
      1. Homo sapiens drawings
        1. Helped them understand environment
        2. Bonded tightly among their kin groups
        3. Established important mythology
        4. Vivid and realistic depicting large game animals
        5. Few depictions of humans
        6. Handprints and abstract symbols
      2. Meaning of drawings
        1. Decoration theory discounted
        2. Separated themselves from nature
        3. Work of shamans for ritual use
      3. Sculptures
        1. Shaped from bone and stone tools
      4. Animal paintings symbolic of male or female
    2. Language
      1. Evolutionary milestone
        1. Enhanced ability to communicate
        2. Allowed for bodies of knowledge to be transmitted
      2. Phonemes
        1. Humans can create sequences of words
        2. Complex language occurred 50,000 years ago
        3. !Kung of Southern Africa and Hadza of Tanzania offer contemporary examples of -protolanguage
  5. The Beginnings of Food Production
    1. Humans Begin to Cultivate Wild Grasses and Cereals and Domesticate Animals
      1. Southwest Asia
      2. China
      3. Southeast Asia
      4. Mesoamerica
      5. Northeastern America
      6. Other possible sites: East Africa, inland West Africa, southeastern Europe, South America
    2. Early Domestication of Plants and Animals
      1. Gradual change from hunting and gathering to agriculture
        1. Climatic changes led to settled life
        2. Valleys and mountains of Southwest Asia first permanent settlements
      2. Plant domestication
        1. Experiments began with domesticating plants
        2. Larger communities supported with more food
      3. Animal domestication
        1. Began in Zagros Mountains
        2. Sheep first domesticated
        3. Goats introduced to sheep flocks
        4. Herds moved from settlement to grassy steppes to graze
        5. Pastoralism alternative to settled farming
        6. Pigs and cattle also domesticated
      4. Pastoralists vs. agriculturalists
        1. Pastoralists on the steppe lands
        2. Agriculturalists from arable zones
        3. Pastoralists important in world history
          1. Domesticated horses
          2. Developed weapons and techniques
          3. Transmitted ideas, products, and people across long distances
          4. Connected east and west
          5. Horses most important animal and became measure of household wealth and prestige
    3. Southwest Asia: The Revolution Begins
      1. Agricultural revolution occurred in Southwest Asia
      2. Fertile Crescent place of rich soils and regular rainfall
      3. Four large mammals domesticated (goats, sheep, pigs, cattle)
      4. Horses came to the area from steppes
      5. Climate changed led to more plants in the area
      6. 9000 B.C.E.: Jordan River valley people began to domesticate barley and wheat
        1. Selected and stored seeds for later planting
      7. Land between Tigris and Euphrates remained in small communities
        1. Before 5500 B.C.E., flood and drought prevented agricultural advances in the area
        2. Competition from other areas would eventually lead to early attempts to control river
  6. Emergence of Agriculture in Other Areas
    1. Similar agricultural revolutions occurred all over the world
      1. Internally generated or borrowed technology
      2. Regional variations because of climate, geography, and preexisting social organizations
    2. Rice and Water in East Asia
      1. Melting glaciers in 13,000 B.C.E. led to environmental changes
      2. Japanese islands formed
        1. Large animals became extinct
        2. Began to cultivate crops
      3. River basins and lakes formed in Asia
      4. Yellow and Yangzi river valleys became heavily populated
      5. Rice domesticated by 6500 B.C.E.; millet by 5500 B.C.E.
      6. Grain, tools, and technical knowledge spread throughout East Asia
      7. Pottery making for storage and polished stone axes for clearing fields
      8. Regional agriculture differences affected cultures and aesthetics of the people in those regions
    3. Spread of Agriculture to Europe
      1. Domestication ideas came from other areas and spread quickly
      2. Greece and the Balkans first converted from hunters and gatherers
      3. Agriculture and village life in Europe developed in two areas
        1. Northern rim of the Mediterranean Sea
        2. Greece, the Balkans, and along Danube and Rhine river valleys
      4. Ideas spread by water and overland
      5. Needed to find crops and animals that could adapt to new climates
        1. Main crops wheat and barley
        2. Main herded animals sheep, goats, and cattle
        3. Later plants included olives and grape-producing vines
      6. Material progress changed little
        1. Settlements of 12 to 70 huts
        2. Timber and mud "long houses"
        3. Hunting and gathering supplemented agriculture
        4. Blend of old and new ways
        5. Geography determined where changes occurred
        6. Population did rise in settled communities
    4. Agriculture in the Americas
      1. Flora and fauna different in the Americas than in Afro-Eurasia
      2. Used chipped blades and pointed spears in hunting
      3. Clovis people scattered throughout North America
      4. Large prey became increasing vulnerable because of environmental changes that affected the food supply
      5. Ecological niches generated a variety of subsistence strategies
      6. Most communities blended settled agriculture with hunting and gathering
      7. Changes to food production happened more slowly
        1. Stone tools in Tehuacan Valley by 6700 B.C.E.
        2. Plant domestication by 5000 B.C.E.
        3. Fishing and shellfishing along various coasts
          1. Peru example fishing but no watercrafts
      8. Plant experimentation dates from 7000 B.C.E.
        1. Maize, squash, and beans
        2. Maize not fully domesticated until 2000 B.C.E.
      9. Change even slower in South America
      10. Balanced diet through crops such as legumes, grains, and tubers
      11. Few domesticated animals for alternative protein source
        1. Exception in Andean highlands, where guinea pigs were raised for food
      12. Llamas semidomesticated for clothing and hauling
      13. Change slower in Americas because of diversity and isolation
    5. Africa: The Race with the Sahara
      1. Sahel area became settled by farmers and herders
        1. Later Africans from this area carried techniques to other areas of the continent
      2. Sahel region
        1. Lush with grassland vegetation and many animals
        2. Sorghum principal food crop
      3. Climate change pushed people out to other parts of Africa
        1. Tropical rain forests of West Africa
          1. Root crops such as yams and cocoyams
        2. Ethiopian highlands
          1. Enset (banana-like) plant
      4. In temperate and wetter climates villages formed
        1. Houses made from stone
        2. Underground wells and granary storage areas
        3. Created rock engravings and paintings
          1. Hunting and pastoral scenes
          2. Cattle
          3. Daily activities of men and women
        4. Warming and drying of earth's climate pushed inhabitants toward inland water
      5. Settled agriculture included collecting aquatic life
        1. Theory that Lake Chad inhabitants began Africa's agricultural revolution
        2. Fish harvests
          1. Expand population
          2. Establish substantial villages
          3. Create cultural rituals such as burial ceremonies
        3. Little of those early communities remains because of climate change that dried up much of the lake
  7. Revolutions in Social Organization
    1. Village growth led to specialization and stratification
    2. Early Settlement in Villages
      1. Dwellings changed from circular to rectangular
      2. Population growth led to increased use of resources
      3. Specialized tasks evolved
        1. Procuring and preparing food
        2. Building terraces
        3. Defending the settlement
      4. Rectangular building shape evolved
        1. Easier to build walls for separation
      5. Early settlements that made transition to settled agriculture
        1. Wadi en-Natuf (near Jerusalem) 12,500 B.C.E.
        2. Eastern Anatolia
        3. Catal Hoyuk in central Anatolia
          1. Decorated human-made dwellings with art and imagery
      6. Mesopotamian inhabitants created simple irrigation systems
        1. Community becomes stratified
        2. Burial sites reflect power status
        3. High status from birth, not through merit or work
      7. Population increase led to larger concentrations of people into early towns
        1. Not all who lived in towns produced food
        2. Surpluses of food available
    3. Men, Women, and the Growth of Drudgery
      1. Biological-based differences between men and women
        1. Women give birth to offspring, men do not
        2. Biology determined female and male actions toward each other
      2. Gender (social and culture differences) appear only with Homo sapiens
      3. Need language and complex thinking to develop true gender categories of man and woman
      4. Gender roles more pronounced with food-producing revolution
        1. Gender equality erodes as communities abandon hunting and gathering
        2. Women's knowledge of plants contributed to the move to settled agriculture, but women did not benefit from that move
        3. "Great Leap Sideways"
      5. Larger tools further separate genders
        1. Men took over yoking animals
        2. Women left with repetitive tasks of planting, weeding and harvesting, and grinding
        3. Agricultural innovations increased drudgery, which mainly fell to women
        4. Fossil record clearly shows gendered farm work
          1. Women's fossil record shows more physical problems with settled agriculture
      6. Stratification of genders affected power relations with in households and community
        1. Senior male figure become dominant in households, politics, and cultural hierarchies
        2. Division among men but especially between men and women
        3. Patriarchy, or the "rule of senior males" within households spreads globally
  8. Conclusion
    1. African hominids evolved from other primates into Homo erectus hominids
    2. Climate change and adaptation led to the spread of successive generations of hominids out of Africa
    3. Homo sapiens with larger brains moved out of Africa about 100,000 years ago
      1. Language and complex thinking helped them adapt during further climate change
    4. As the adapted over time they formed communities of hunters and gatherers
    5. Changes in climate in some places in the world led to embrace of settled agriculture
    6. Settled farm communities varied in what they grew and which animals were domesticated
    7. Some peoples continued to hunt and gather or move with migrating fish or mammals
    8. Most people remained exclusively rural, developed largely horizontal social structures, and depended on the natural world