StudySpace: Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, 2 e.

Printer friendly page

1. Global Integration
1. During the 1970s political practices and institutions associated with the three-world order began to crumble
2. Removing Obstacles to Globalization
1. A new architecture of power emerged that united the world into a global marketplace
1. U.S. promoted change
2. Ending the cold war
1. The cold war limited global exchanges
1. After 1960, regional conflicts in Southeast Asia, Afghanistan, and Central America brought tremendous costs to the regions involved
2. The conflict also stretched both superpowers' resources
1. The largest peacetime accumulation of arms in world history occurred during the 1970s and 1980s
2. Despite efforts at arms control, expensive programs such as "Star Wars" mired both governments in debt
2. Both alliances showed signs of cracking starting in the 1970s
1. By the 1980s the Soviet Union was caught in a military stalemate in Afghanistan
2. Eastern Europe had become dependent on Western loans and consumer goods
3. The Western public was divided over the nuclear weapons buildup of the 1980s
4. Japanese economic strides challenged American and European industries' ability to provide employment and profits
3. Starting in the late 1980s, the Soviet bloc collapsed
1. Planned economies failed to provide consumer goods and health care on a par with the West
2. The selection of a Polish pope inspired massive resistance to Communist rule
3. In 1980, Solidarity, an independent union, formed to bring down the socialist state in Poland
4. Mikhail Gorbachev, elevated to leadership of the Soviet Communist Party in 1985, tried to reform the Soviet bloc along the lines of the 1968 Prague Spring
1. He also launched major arms control initiatives with the United States
2. Soon civic groups emerged throughout the Eastern bloc pressing for more personal freedoms and national autonomy
5. Instead of using the massive forces at his disposal to save his regime, Gorbachev let it go
1. Hard-liners staged a failed coup to arrest these developments in 1991
6. By the end of 1992, the Soviet Union was no more
7. Several Eastern European states ceased to exist
1. East Germany quickly merged with West Germany
2. Yugoslavia disintegrated into several nations, much like the Soviet Union
3. This collapse was not entirely peaceful as fighting erupted in Moldova and Yugoslavia
8. Over the rest of the decade, most of these societies, with a few exceptions, experienced political and economic stagnation
3. Africa and the end of white rule
1. Final decolonization, or the end of non-European rule, in Africa occurred after 1975
1. Portuguese colonies in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique became independent by the mid-1970s
2. International pressure and Robert Mugabe's liberation guerilla movement brought an end to white rule in Rhodesia, now called Zimbabwe
3. International pressure and internal protest eventually led the white National Party in South Africa to legalize the African National Congress and hold democratic elections in 1994.
1. Nelson Mandela, released from prison in 1990, became the new president bent on preserving South Africa's industry, education, wealth, and fledgling multiracial democracy
4. Decolonization did not deliver many of its promises. Africa remained embroiled in ethnic, religious, and military conflicts
3. Unleashing globalization
1. By the 1990s most states eliminated many barriers to trade, migration, and investment and unleashed the forces of globalization
1. Finance and trade
1. In the 1970s governments in the First World eliminated fixed exchange rates. This led to a new system of informal management of money across borders, with private banks playing a large role, along with governments, in regulating the global economy
2. Intellectually, Keynesian ideas of government management lost sway as a younger generation of economists preached a philosophy of unfettered markets as the best means to achieve growth
1. These ideas strongly influenced the Thatcher and Reagan administrations in Great Britain and the United States, respectively
2. International Monetary Fund (IMF) emerged as a central player
3. International financial deregulation made it easier for transnational transactions, acquisitions, and mergers between banks and businesses
4. The "debt crisis" of the 1980s and the International Monetary Fund's response furthered financial deregulation and integration
1. In the 1970s, Latin American and Eastern European nations borrowed billions from First World banks
2. When repayment proved difficult, the IMF bailed these governments out on the condition of reducing state management of the national economy
5. New technology further enabled financial integration
1. The Internet and online trading accelerated capital mobility
1. Accelerated capital mobility created enormous volatility and financial panics in Mexico, Russia, and East Asia in the 1990s
6. Financial integration increased commercial interdependence
1. Global trade increased tenfold from 1973-1998
2. International divisions of labor shifted
1. More and more Third World countries became suppliers of manufactured goods, not primarily raw materials
7. Economic integration spurred the rise of East Asia's economic prominence
1. Share of world exports doubled from 1965 to 1990
2. Japan became the world's leading investor
8. Many countries responded to global competition by creating regional economic blocs
1. In 1992, the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
2. Europeans expanded the European Union, slashed trade barriers, and made plans for a uniform currency during the 1990s
9. High technology and knowledge-based goods became ever more important exports and imports
1. This created greater disparity between wealthy countries and those still mainly producing low-tech goods and raw materials
2. Migration
1. Migration, always a major feature in world history, changed after 1970
1. Europeans were no longer on the move
2. Africans, Asians, and Latin Americans were the most likely to migrate, usually to Europe or North America
2. Immigration after 1970 has conformed to existing political relations in that migrants moved from former colonies or dependencies to former imperial powers or between countries with close diplomatic ties
1. Many immigrants began as temporary or guest workers, especially in Europe and Japan, where national identities were considered ethnically homogenous
3. Economic factors have motivated most migrations
1. Global inequities stimulated mass movements from less developed to more developed countries
4. International migration has often been an extension of internal migration from rural to urban areas
1. Lagos, Nigeria, grew from 41,000 people in 1900 to 10 million in 2000
2. Oil money spurred migration to Lagos
5. The United States attracted the lion's share of immigrants, in part because of its more receptive attitude
1. Mexicans made up the single largest group of immigrants
2. Asians numbers also surged
3. The American urban landscape changed in light of heavy immigration, as it did one century earlier
1. Los Angeles, which had been primarily "white" before 1965, now has a population in which two-fifths are foreign-born
6. Migration has unsettled many societies from South Africa to the Middle East
1. Nations around the world struggle with the issue of national identity
3. Culture
1. Globalization has created less global diversity, but on the level of the individual's everyday experience, the potential for experiencing global diversity has greatly increased
2. New media such as cassette tapes, motion pictures, and television provide a global link between cultures
1. Cable television challenged the dominance of "national networks"
1. MTV, for example, can be seen around the world
2. Television in particular globalized sports
1. American professional sports have increasingly attracted foreign participants and audiences
2. Michael Jordan is probably the world's best-known athlete
3. Soccer has become the world's most popular sport
3. Global culture
1. Migrants brought their culture to new destinations and borrowed from host cultures, producing hybrid cultural expression
1. Reggae became popular where West Indian communities had moved in the 1960s and 1970s
1. American rap music emerged out of this genre
2. "Latin" music emerged in the United States
2. World popular culture increasingly became "youth" culture
1. Popular culture often represented protest against traditions or autocratic regimes
3. Cultural mixing provoked opposition in many regions
1. The French government created a cultural ministry to combat the influence of English on the national language
2. Mullahs in Teheran tried to curb the influence of what they saw as secularization and materialism
4. The rest of the world has also transformed American popular culture
1. Music increasingly reflected Hispanic and Caribbean influences
2. Foreign sports figures have huge followings
4. Local Culture
1. Migration has reinforced the appeal of local and national culture
2. National celebrities often attained large followings among those who had immigrated to other countries
5. The market for world cultures is competitive and has led to more room for diverse performers
1. The triumph of the black and gay performer among world consumers marks major breaks in cultural history
6. The globalization of culture has brought many changes
1. Global culture has become more homogenous, but at the same time local culture has become more diverse
4. Communications
1. After 1970, a revolution in communications aided the creation of human networks among world societies
1. Satellites allowed for wider television broadcasts
2. The personal computer enabled individuals to process words, run a business, communicate with others, etc., from home
3. The Internet spurred the use of personal computers
4. New corporations such as personal computer makers, Internet providers, software makers, and dot-coms, generated whole engines of wealth and power and international networks of production and exchange
2. The communications revolution has integrated wealthier communities together around the world while failing to close the gap between the rich and the poor
4. Characteristics of the new global order
1. Population migrations, international banking, expanded international trade, and technical breakthroughs in communications created a world that would hardly have been recognizable to the inhabitants of the world at the beginning of the twentieth century
1. The demography of globalization
1. The world's population stood at 6 billion in 2000, up from 3 billion in 1960
1. Mortality declined, especially among infants
2. Life expectancy increased
2. In Europe and North America, population growth slowed, but everywhere else it boomed
1. China and India have populations over 1 billion
2. The world's largest cities are no longer in Europe and North America
3. Population growth is slowest in rich societies and strongest in poor ones, but in all societies birthrates have declined
1. China has resorted to a "one-child family" policy to hold down population growth
2. "One-child" policy led to an increased imbalance of the sex ratio partly because of prenatal sex selection due to availability of expensive ultrasound scanners
4. Families
1. Definitions of families have become more fluid
2. Divorce rates have increased, especially in the West
3. More children are raised by one parent
4. People are electing to delay marriage, not reproduce, and marry for love at higher rates than before
5. Aging
1. Longer life spans have also affected family development
2. Populations in many areas have "grayed," particularly in developed countries
3. Aging populations have become depended on the state for care giving and financial aid
1. In many areas, the state cannot take up this burden
2. Health
1. The distribution of disease reflects global inequities
2. Disease controls, antibiotics, vaccinations, and healthy habits have reduced the spread of contagions
3. What used to be universal afflictions centuries ago are now becoming limited to particular people and regions
1. For example, Cholera, the result of inadequate water treatment, still breaks out in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean
4. New diseases have appeared.
1. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV-AIDS) is the best example
1. Treatment is expensive, leaving the poor and disadvantaged vulnerable
2. The vast majority of people with HIV-AIDS are poor and live in Africa and Asia
3. Education
1. Access to education has increasingly separated the haves from the have-nots
2. Around the world, men tend to receive more education than women, despite gains in the West
3. Lack of or disparities in education increasingly continue to be drags on sub-Saharan Africa's and India's efforts to combat poverty
4. In the Arab world, the literacy gap between men and women has decreased. But Arab men's literacy is still 15-20 percent above that of Arab women
4. Work
1. Women all over the world find themselves channeled into feminized professions
2. The percentage of women at the top of corporate pyramids does not reflect their participation in the workforce or their college graduation rates
3. Working outside the home has challenged traditional roles as mothers
5. Families
1. To address inequities between men and women, feminist movements emerged in Europe and North America in the 1960s, then became global in the 1970s
1. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing attracted 4,000 government delegates from 180 countries as women increasingly struggled to meet the challenges of economic integration. 30,000 other women representing non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also attended
6. Production and consumption in the global economy
1. Growth in population, the desire for more education and better health, the entry of women into paid employment, and the promise of rising living standards have resulted in the accelerated production and consumption of the world's resources at an astonishing rate
2. Agricultural production
1. The "green revolution," or the use of chemicals, vastly increased yields
2. Genetically engineered crops have also expanded yields
3. These agricultural gains have not been spread evenly around the globe
1. The United States produces one-ninth of the world's wheat and two-fifths of its corn
2. Asian rice growers have also made impressive gains
3. Even in those societies, those without access to non-farm inputs such as chemical fertilizers have not benefited from the overall increase in output
1. Many small farmers in Indonesia and Brazil are destroying their environment in search of cheap land in the rain forests or mountainous forestland
4. Production has not kept pace with population in all lands
1. Since the 1970s, Africa has experienced major food shortages
2. Much of this problem stems from inadequate government agricultural policies
7. Natural resources
1. Western nations, especially the United States, consume a high proportion of the world's resources
1. Cities in the American West drain water resources
2. Energy consumption in the U.S. has turned it into an importer of oil
3. The Gulf War was a failed Iraqi attempt to shift the global distribution of oil in favor of producers, not consumers
8. Environment
1. The depletion of natural resources and pollution led to the growing awareness of global environmental problems that often transcended borders
1. Acid rain in Europe and North America has destroyed many habitats
2. The greenhouse effect, caused by human-made carbons, is contributing to global warming throughout the world
3. Car pollution causes serious problems in large cities from Los Angeles to Jakarta
4. Many advanced countries now export hazardous waste to developing countries
5. The meltdown of a nuclear reactor at Chernobyl inside the Soviet Union in 1986 showed the potential disasters in generating nuclear energy
5. Citizenship in the global world
1. Supernational Organizations
1. Globalization has posed major problems for nation-states, which supranational organizations have dealt with.
2. A variety of international bodies have come into existence since World War II that have impinged on the autonomy of all but the most powerful states
1. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have dispersed funds and expertise around the world but at the same time forced governments to implement often resented policies in return
2. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as the International Committee for the Red Cross, have often become international forces that rival the political power of nation-states
1. Many NGOs came into being during the 1970s to promote human and democratic values
1. Amnesty International and the Ford Foundation were prominent in this area
2. Violence
1. International organizations and NGOs failed to prevent violence at the end of the cold war
2. In southeastern Europe, various ethnic groups fought for control of regions after Communist regimes collapsed
1. Dayton Accords (1995), coupled with NATO air strikes, ended much of the violence in Bosnia
3. International organizations and NGOs failed to prevent violence at the end of the cold war
4. In southeastern Europe, various ethnic groups fought for control of regions after Communist regimes collapsed
5. Most warfare at the end of the twentieth century was conducted within nation-states, not between them
1. The worst political violence recently has been in Africa
1. Hutus massacred 800,000 Tutsis in Rwanda in the mid-1990s
6. Some societies have tried to overcome political violence
1. In Latin America and South Africa, many governments established "truth" commissions to inquire about human rights abuses to create bonds between public authority and citizens
2. Democratic states have difficulty preventing violence by nonstate actors, as shown in the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
3. Religious foundations of politics
1. In India, Hindu nationalism has offered a communal identity for a country rapidly transformed by the forces of globalization
1. In the 1980s, the Indian government deregulated the economy and allowed for greater market mechanisms
1. These reforms widened the gap between the rich and the poor
2. Lower classes and castes formed new political parties to challenge the elite
2. In the midst of this fluctuation, right-wing Hindu nationalists used religion to fill the role once occupied by the secular state
1. The BJP was devoted to making India a Hindu state
2. By the mid-1990s the party was in power, but it did not try to challenge the forces of globalization
2. In other areas, religion provided a way to resist Americanization
1. Many Muslims in the Middle East, both clerics and Western-educated elites, were critical of the intrusion of Western-style materialism and individualism in their societies
2. In 1979, an Islamic movement overthrew the Western-backed shah of Iran
1. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini emerged as the leader of the country, bent on establishing a theocratic state that returned the nation to Islamic values
2. Khomeini labeled the U.S., the shah's backer, as the great Satan
3. The search for moral foundations of politics has also affected Western countries
1. In the United States, religion became a powerful political force in politics during the 1970s
2. Conservative Protestant groups in particular railed against secularizing trends
4. Acceptance of and resistance to democracy
1. More and more societies embraced the notion that people had a right to choose their representatives
1. China is the important holdout
1. Market reforms under Deng Xiaoping, who succeeded Mao as leader of the Communist Party, raised living standards by the late 1980s
2. Widening gaps between the rich and poor and public corruption fueled protest and demands for more openness
3. In 1989, protesters converged on Tiananmen Square
4. On June 3, the government ordered a military crackdown where thousands were killed
5. Although the Communist Party remains in power, market forces have created an urban entrepreneurial class in contrast to the rural poor
2. Democracy triumphed in Mexico during the 1990s
1. The political clique that ruled Mexico for decades lost support in light of corruption and abuses
2. Zapatistas, a group of Indian rebels in Chiapas, rose up in armed rebellion in 1994
3. The Internet and the Cable News Network gave widespread coverage of the conflict and international pressure forced the government to abandon plans for a military crackdown in the region
4. In 2000, national elections toppled the ruling party and Mexico abandoned its one-party ruling system
6. Conclusion
1. By the end of the century, the world was vastly different from the thirteenth-century world
2. In the year 2000, one could speak of a global culture, although local traditions remained vibrant
1. Increasingly, the nation-state no longer defined collective identities
3. Globalization has created new possibilities and greater inequalities
1. The disparities between the haves and have-nots are greater than ever before
2. Thus as the world has come together, it has also grown further apart

 

Section Menu

Organize

• Study Plan
• Chapter Summary
• Chapter Outline
• Focus Questions
• Progress Report

Learn

• eBook
• iMaps & GeoQuiz
• Map Worksheets
• Chapter Quiz
• Flashcards
• Chrono-Sequencer

Connect

• Research Topics
• Documents