StudySpace: Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, 2 e.

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1. Nation-Building and Expansion
1. Ideology of nation-state building was widespread
2. Many times the state created the nation through shared ideals, laws and customs
3. Nation-states sought to expand globally
1. Scramble for colonies brought prestige to nation-states
4. Large migrations of peoples to new lands
5. Colonial empires moved labor, capital, and commodities to new territories
2. Expansion and nation-state building in the Americas
1. Leaders in the Americas shared similar goals in the nineteenth century
1. They strove to create stable political communities
1. They desired public participation and legitimacy
2. They created uniform laws and courts
3. They issued standard currencies
2. They wanted to expand their territory
1. They wanted to incorporate the periphery into the national fabric
2. This challenged the traditional ways of life of indigenous peoples
3. Methods and processes differed from country to country
2. The United States
1. Thomas Jefferson and others promoted territorial expansion as necessary for the independence and economic well-being of white citizens
1. In 1803, the United States concluded the Louisiana Purchase
2. In the 1840s it divided Oregon with Great Britain
3. During 1846-1848 it conquered half of Mexico
4. Gold rush in California led to mass migration to the state in the 1850s
2. Territorial expansion eventually caused the Civil War as Americans disagreed over the role of slavery in the country's future
1. After the war, although former slaves were nominally incorporated into the citizenry they were definitely second-class citizens
3. The defeat of the South strengthened the national government, which promoted economic development
1. By 1900 the U.S. had 200,000 miles of railroad track
2. Mechanization of agriculture led to huge gains in production of wheat
3. The United States became the leading manufacturer in the world
4. The transformed economy generated renewed social conflict
1. The new economy was prone to overproduction and depression
2. Class conflict heightened
1. 1% of all Americans controlled 90% of its wealth
2. Radical labor leaders emerged
3. Radical agrarians led protests against the new order
3. The government took the land of the Great Plains Indians
5. With nowhere left to expand in North America, many Americans looked to overseas expansion to cure overproduction and class unrest
3. Canada
1. Canada separated peacefully from Britain in 1867
1. The new nation was sharply divided between English- and French-speaking citizens
2. The new government used territorial expansion to promote unity and nationalism
1. The Canadian government used state resources to promote settlement in the West
2. It also used diplomacy and treaties to reduce conflict with Great Plains Indians
3. Canada emerged with a stronger state, but a weaker sense of nation
4. Latin America
1. By the middle of the century, Latin American countries had become liberal capitalist societies who sought territorial expansion but with major differences
1. Unlike in North America, most of the good land went to large estate holders who produced export crops such as sugar or coffee, or raised cattle
2. Also, Latin American elites held a monopoly of power, unlike in the United States and Canada where there was broader participation among whites
1. Latin American states also excluded Indians and blacks
2. Landed elites maintained control of the Brazilian government and preserved their property rights, even while abolishing slavery. This development shaped territorial expansion
1. Brazilian state was deliberately exclusionary and placed restrictions on suffrage
2. The state allocated huge concessions to capitalists to extract rubber latex from the Amazon River basin
1. Merchants and landowners made huge fortunes
2. Workers, mainly Indians, also benefited as long as prices remained high
3. The enterprise went bust by the turn of the century because of international competition
3. Consolidation of nation-states in Europe
1. During the second half of the century, liberals and conservatives were in alliance and nationalism assumed a more conservative character
1. Nationalism became a way of muting social conflict and mobilizing the state
2. Many conservatives reconciled themselves to liberal political agendas. Liberals sided with conservatives in opposing radical economic reform
1. Louis Napoleon embodied this alliance in France
1. He used universal male suffrage (particularly an alliance of peasants and the bourgeoisie against radicals) to become another emperor and strengthen the state at home and abroad
3. Unification in Germany and Italy
1. Prussian conservative prime minister Otto von Bismarck and Piedmont conservative prime minister Camillo di Cavour exploited nationalist sentiment to create the modern nation-states of Germany and Italy, respectively
1. Both used war to unite the regions
2. Both used nationalism to strengthen the state and dampen radicalism
3. Both were strong powers able to compete with Britain and France
1. Unification brought economic growth
4. Neither had a broad franchise
1. Germany, however, instituted Europe's strongest welfare state to blunt radicalism
2. Both were divided among regional and class lines
4. Contradiction of the nation in Europe
1. Nationalism weakened the Austrian empire
1. In 1867 the ruling Habsburgs agreed to home rule for Hungary and the realm became known as the Austro-Hungarian empire
1. Other ethnic groups soon clamored for similar recognition
2. The Irish pressed for home rule within the British empire after the great potato famine of the 1840s
4. Industry, science, and technology
1. The second industrial revolution swept through the industrial sector of the world economy after 1850
2. Japan became an industrial power after 1880
3. The United States and Germany overtook Britain in terms of world share of industrial output
4. New materials, technologies, and business practices
1. Steel production soared
2. Chemicals, oil, and pharmaceuticals became major industries
3. Mass transportation vehicles such as automobiles and trolleys emerged
4. Electricity, a cheap source of energy, became widely used
5. Science and industry became firmly wedded
1. German industrialists pioneered research laboratories staffed by university-trained chemists and physicists
2. The United States soon followed
6. Giant integrated firms emerged
1. In Europe and the U.S., limited-liability joint-stock companies became major providers of funds for business activity
1. Shareholders were no longer liable for firm's debts
2. U.S. Steel, Standard Oil, Imperial Chemical Industries, and Krupp were a few examples of these huge firms
7. Integration of the World Economy
1. Europe and the U.S. increased exports
2. Their need to control the flow of tropical resources grew
1. Industries now needed access to rubber, copper, oil, and bauxite more often found in tropical climates
3. They possessed larger pools of capital for overseas investment
1. Britain remained the world's leading investor, sending one-tenth of its annual income overseas
8. The enlarged world economy needed labor in certain regions to raise crops, work in mines, or staff factories
1. Indian workers moved to the Caribbean, Mauritius, Fiji, and South Africa
2. Chinese laborers moved to California and Cuba
3. Irish, Poles, Jews, Italians, and Greeks flocked to North America and South America
9. New technologies in warfare and transportation increased European dominance
1. Steam-powered gunboats and breech-loading rifles opened new territories for exploitation
2. Railroads facilitated the movement of peoples and goods to coastal ports
3. Steamships allowed for more efficient ocean travel
1. The Suez Canal decreased the amount of time needed to travel from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean
4. Telegraph cables allowed for instant communication
10. Scientific and technological innovation encouraged other innovations
1. Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution
11. European scientists, laymen, clergy, and anthropologists began debating the sources of what they perceived to be European superiority
1. Social Darwinism emerged to justify white supremacy
5. Imperialism
1. Between 1860 and 1900, European nations, as well as Russia, the United States, and Japan, vastly expanded their territorial control in Southeast Asia, Africa, Central Asia, and the Caribbean
1. India and the imperial model
1. Britain's experience in India served as a role model
2. After the Rebellion of 1857, the British government sought to remake the colony
1. An appointed British viceroy, responsible to the British cabinet, ruled the colony
2. The viceroy oversaw the development of a modern transportation and communication system
1. By 1910, India had the fourth largest railroad network in the world
2. Engineers built dams and telegraph lines
3. India became a consumer of British manufactured goods and a supplier of raw materials such as cotton, jute, tea, wheat, and oil seeds
1. Peasants did most of the production but rarely saw the full returns of their labor
4. Indian trade helped to balance Britain's trade deficit with the rest of the world
5. The "Raj" helped foster a sense of Indian national identity as well
2. Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia
1. Holland ended Dutch East India Company rule in the 1830s, and the Dutch government assumed direct control
2. The new administration forced everyone to raise coffee on one-third of their land
1. Famine spread through the colony over the next two decades
3. In the 1860s, the Dutch began an "Ethical Policy"
1. Dutch settlement was encouraged
2. More private enterprise was allowed
4. The Dutch spent time and effort putting down rebellions throughout the rest of the century
5. Indonesian production of sugar, tobacco, rice, tin, oil, and rubber, however, made huge profits for the Dutch
3. Colonizing Africa
1. Africa bore the brunt of European imperialism
1. Only Ethiopia and Liberia avoided conquest
2. The French and British, with toeholds in North and South Africa, respectively, moved into the interior after 1850
3. Other European countries soon duplicated these efforts
1. European powers, the United States, and the Ottoman empire met in Berlin in 1884-1885 to make sure this "scramble" happened in an orderly fashion
2. European partition of Africa divided ethnic, tribal, religious, and linguistic groups
4. Europeans were motivated out of desires for investment and trade
1. Stanley and Livingstone's explorations excited many about the continent's economic potential
5. Europeans also saw colonies as a sign of national greatness
1. Individuals, such as Karl Peters of Germany and Cecil Rhodes of Britain, often promoted this vision and their own personal fortunes in Africa
2. King Leopold II, chafing at being a monarch of tiny Belgium, built a personal empire in the Congo
1. Later the Belgian government took control after the human rights abuses under his regime became well known
6. Others viewed imperialism in Africa as a chance to spread Christianity
7. Africans resisted this encroachment on their lives, but resistance was largely futile
1. Africans were internally divided
2. European technology was superior to African weapons
3. Only Menelik, ruler of Ethiopia, repulsed the Europeans
1. He modernized his army and played Europeans off each other
4. Other Africans did hold out for a long time
1. Samori Touré in West Africa used guerilla tactics against the French and was not defeated until 1900
8. Colonial administrations
1. Some European administrations, such as Leopold's Congo, relied on brute force
2. Others relied on military adventurers, settlers, and avaricious entrepreneurs
1. Some individuals established near-fiefdoms that they exploited for personal gain
3. All Europeans relied on African armies to do their bidding
1. The Force Publique in the Congo
4. Over time, Europeans created stable, rationalized bureaucracies
1. This system laid the foundations for today's nation-states in Africa
2. The goal of these administrations were to
1. Have the colony pay for its administration
2. Preserve domestic peace
3. Promote economic growth that would generate income for Africans and European investors
3. New exports such as cocoa, coffee, palm oil, palm kernels, tea, sisal, and cotton became major exports
1. Most of this wealth went to Europeans
5. New trade patterns disrupted traditional lives
1. Europeans lured thousands of workers to mines in Katanga and South Africa
1. Most of these workers ended up indebted to these companies
2. Women had to take care of subsistence and cash crops at home
3. Working conditions and pay in the mines were deplorable
6. Overall, European administrations were quite fragile
4. The American empire
1. In the 1890s, the United States began to emulate the European model of colonization in Africa and Asia, building on the Manifest Destiny rhetoric of the 1840s
2. American expansion took place during and after the Spanish-American War
1. Although it had fought for the independence of Cuba, America acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and limited Cuba's independence
1. Both Cubans and Filipinos revolted
2. These colonies allowed the U.S. to intervene in the affairs of many countries in Central America and the Caribbean to protect American property and investment
6. Imperialism and culture
1. Overseas expansion reinforced ideas of cultural and racial superiority at home
1. Social Darwinism gave Europeans the belief that it was their duty to rule
1. Europeans often viewed their role as one of "civilizing" less developed societies
1. Many organizations emerged to promote this view
2. Celebrations of imperialism appeared in popular culture
1. Portable cameras appeared allowing for imperial images in postcards and advertising
2. Motherhood was celebrated as necessary to the imperial effort
3. The image of the adventurous boyhood also appeared
1. Juvenile literature was increasingly organized around sex roles
1. Boys' literature focused on adventure in exotic locals
1. Rudyard Kipling's novels
2. Girls' literature stressed domestic service and nurturing
7. Japan, Russia, and China
1. Expansion was not just a Western phenomenon
2. Japanese transformation and expansion
1. With the Meiji Restoration in the late nineteenth century, Japan became a modern nation-state
1. In 1868, elites toppled the Tokugawa Shogunate
1. The new government developed a new model of political community that stressed unity and superiority
2. The Meiji Constitution was modeled on that of Germany
1. One percent of the population voted for representatives to the "Diet"
2. The Meiji Restoration led to a remarkable economic transformation
1. Land reform allowed peasants to become small landholders
1. Peasants improved their productivity
2. The government also created a uniform currency, constructed a postal system, laid telegraph lines, formed foreign trade associations, launched savings and export campaigns, built railroads, and hired foreign consultants
3. Eventually, the government sold many of these valuable enterprises to individuals
1. This initiative helped create powerful family holding companies known as zaibatsu
3. Expansion offered more markets for this modernizing economy and a chance to assert the country's "greatness"
1. In 1872 the Japanese took over the Ry?ky?s kingdom
2. In 1876, they recognized Korea as an independent state and angered China, which considered Korea a "sphere of influence"
3. In 1894-1895, they defeated the Chinese in the Sino-Japanese War
1. China ceded Taiwan to Japan
4. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea
4. Like Europeans, the Japanese viewed colonial peoples as inferior
5. They also expected colonies to serve the economic interests of Japan
1. In particular, they developed rice production for export to Japan
2. Taiwan also exported sugar to the rest of Asia, earning foreign currency for Japan
3. Russian transformation and expansion
1. Russia embarked on expansion in the late nineteenth century, largely as a defensive reaction to expansion of countries around its territory
2. At first this expansion did not go well
1. Britain and France prevented Russian expansion into southeastern Europe in the Crimean War of 1853-1856
2. The war spurred Russian authorities on a state-led modernization course
1. Autocratic rule remained
1. The monarchy stifled dissent
2. Serfdom was abolished
1. Landholders kept the best land and serfs had to pay large redemption taxes for the poor land they received
3. The government also reformed the education and legal systems
4. The government encouraged railroad construction, industrial production, and mining
3. With modernization came expansion
1. In the 1860s, Russia conquered Turkestan
1. Russians soon migrated into the Central Asia province
2. Russia soon conquered much of the Caucasus Mountains region in order to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ottomans or Persians
3. Russia acquired land in Manchuria from China in the 1860s
1. To invest in the area it sold Alaska to the U.S.
2. In the 1890s the Trans-Siberian railroad linked the region to the west
4. By 1900, Russia had acquired a multiethnic empire of which Russians barely accounted for half the population
1. Conquered regions were made full part of the realm
1. Appointed governors ruled them
2. In some areas, the government promoted "Russification" or use of the Russian language and promotion of Russian culture
3. In others, the Russians respected cultural autonomy and tried to incorporate local elites into their regime
5. While expansion was supposed to bring security to the borders it created even more insecurity
1. The British, Ottomans, Persians, and Japanese all felt that Russian expansionism threatened their holdings in Asia and Europe
2. Defending the borders was a constant strain on the Russian government
3. Economic modernization also created instability
4. China under pressure
1. The Chinese were slower than the Russians and the Japanese to emulate European models of industrialism and imperialism
1. Historically they were more worried about internal revolts and threats from their northern border
2. The Self-Strengthening Movement
1. Starting in the 1860s, reformist bureaucrats sought to adopt Western learning and technological skills
1. They built arsenals, shipyards, coal mines, and steamships
2. They sent 120 students abroad
2. Conservatives were skeptical about these efforts
1. They argued that industrialism would lead to unemployment
2. They believed railroads would affront geometric sensibilities and disturb harmony between humans and nature
1. The first short railroad was torn up in 1877 shortly after it was built
3. Internal developments
1. Population pressures led to migrations to the frontier areas of Manchuria, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia
2. In coastal cities, Chinese-language newspapers appeared
4. Hundred Days' Reform
1. Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) led to an attempt at comprehensive reform on the part of the Qing dynasty
2. Scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao wanted China to emulate Japan and develop railroads, modern banking, etc.
3. In September 1898, the Guangxu emperor agreed
4. The efforts aroused conservative opposition, which rallied around the Empress Dowager Cixi
5. The Guangxu emperor was put under house arrest and the reforms ended
8. Conclusion
1. Between 1850 and 1914, the majority of the world's population lived in empires, not nation-states
1. Still, nationalism spread during this time
2. Strengthening state power went hand-in-hand with reordering the polity around "the nation"
2. In the second half of the century, nation-building had allowed some states to extend their power beyond national borders
1. Colonization was integral to nation-building in many societies
1. Brazil, Japan, and the United States all integrated important provinces
2. Others did not attempt to integrate their colonies into the nation, such as Britain with India and Holland with Indonesia
1. Ideologies of race and empire became woven into the fabric of imperialism
2. By 1900, three new world powers-the United States, Germany, and Japan-had emerged
1. Russia was also powerful, but it rested on a weak foundation
3. The emergence of nation-states and colonies allowed an effective framework for integrating the global economy
1. Industrialism spread
2. Labor, capital, and commodities moved across the world at higher rates than before
3. Much of this integration occurred between nation-states and their empires, not among the various empires
4. Ironically, imperialism spread the idea of nationalism to colonial subjects
1. Colonial subjects often used the rhetoric of nationalism to assert their autonomy
1. Filipinos, for example, used Jefferson's Declaration of Independence to oppose American invaders

 

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