StudySpace: Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, 2 e.

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1. A Globe of Regional Worlds
1. During the years from 1000 to 1300 people from distant regions borrowed ideas, tools, and cultural norms
2. Contact and exchange reinforced the sense of difference across cultures and set up bounded cultural worlds like "Europe," "China," or "India"
3. Areas that had remained apart found their own identities strengthen with little contact to others
4. Paradox: the world was becoming more interconnected while its regions became more distinct
2. Commercial Connections
1. Revolutions at Sea
1. By the tenth century, sea routes had eclipsed land routes for trade
1. Improved navigational aids
2. Refinements of shipbuilding
3. Better map making
4. Breakthroughs in commercial laws and accounting practices
2. Ships could carry much more than people and beasts of burden could
3. Compass was crucial to the maritime revolution
1. Invented by Chinese
2. Use of the device spread rapidly
3. Allowed sailing during cloudy weather
1. So opened up the Mediterranean during the whole year
4. Mapmaking easier and more accurate
5. Made oceans like the Atlantic easier to navigate
4. Shipping became less dangerous
1. Better vessels rigged with Lateen sails or Junks
2. Protection of political authorities
1. Karim, armed coveys to protect ships
5. Sea routes replaced land routes
1. New routes led to more global connections
2. Also created more divisions
2. Commercial Contacts
1. Agricultural development changed the nature of trade and transportation.
1. Irrigation
2. Crop rotation
3. New grain and grass crops
4. Grew food in newer areas
5. Changes yielded surpluses that needed to be traded
2. Ships made it profitable to ship bulky commodities
3. Global Commercial Hubs
1. Long-distance trade created new commercial cities
2. Meeting points between two entrepôts became cosmopolitan
3. Three places emerged as major anchorages
1. Cairo-Fustat (old Cairo)
2. Quanzhou
3. Quilong
4. The Egyptian Anchorage
1. Cairo and Alexandria served as main maritime commercial centers with ties to Indian Ocean
2. Numerous Muslims and Jewish firms (kin-based)
3. Silk yarn and textiles most commonly traded commodities
1. Zaytuni (satin) from Quanzhou
4. The trade cities prospered because Islamic leaders created sophisticated commercial institutions
5. Karimi-protected fleets became postal carriers
6. Islamic legal system helped created a favorable trade environment
1. Laws against usury
2. Partnerships
5. The Anchorage of Quanzhou
1. Busiest trade city in China
2. More centralized with the Office of Seafaring Affairs
1. Taxed, registered, and examined cargo, sailors, and traders
2. Hosted annual ritual to summon favorable winds
3. Locals and foreigners sought protection from goddess Mazu
3. Junks-main ship used in Asia
1. Sailed to Java, through Strait of Malacca to Quilong on India's southwest coast
2. Farther west, switched crew and cargo to the smaller Arabian dhows
3. Best ships in the world because of seaworthiness, size, and navigation equipment
4. Not all sailors on junks were Chinese
4. Quanzhou's population diverse
1. Foreign traders stayed on and ran successful businesses
2. Mixed except for religious worship
6. The Tip of India
1. Chola dynasty became a major power in south India
2. Eventually Muslim traders settled in southwest coast, and Quilon became a major trade hub
3. Traders from China used Quilon as a midpoint to unload wares and pick up passengers and commodities from the West
4. Sailors and traders strictly observed the customs of the city
5. Muslims were largest foreign community in the port
6. Animals-horses and elephants-along with spices, perfumes, and textiles
7. Traders knew each other and personal relationships were key to transactions
3. Regions Together, Regions Apart
1. Sub-Saharan Africa Comes Together
1. After 1000 C.E. sub-Saharan Africa ceased to be a world apart
2. Nowhere in Africa escaped the effects of the outside world
2. West Africa and the Mande-Speaking Peoples
1. Mande-speaking peoples emerged as the link within and beyond West Africa because of their expertise in commerce and political organization
1. Mande is part of the larger Niger-Congo languages
2. Mande or Mandinka people's home was and is the area between the Senegal and Niger rivers
2. By the eleventh century the Mande spread their cultural, commercial, and political hegemony from the high grasslands of the savannah to the woodlands and tropical rainforests
3. Mande and other groups developed centralized polities called sacred kingships
4. Trading networks already established with trading hubs before European explorers and traders arrived
5. Most vigorous and profitable businesses were the ones that stretched across the Sahara desert
1. Most prized trade item was salt mined in northern Sahel by the city of Taghaza
2. Gold mined within the Mande homeland
3. Slaves were traded to the settled Muslim communities of North Africa and Egypt
3. The Empire of Mali
1. Successor state to the kingdom of Ghana
1. Exercised political sway over a vast area up to the 1400s
2. Malian Empire represented the triumph of horse warriors
1. Epic of Sundiata
3. Horses became prestige objects of the savannah peoples
2. Mali Empire was a thriving commercial polity by the fourteenth century
3. Malian Empire had two of the largest West African cities
1. Jenne, an ancient northern commercial entrepôt
2. City of Timbuktu founded around 1100 C.E. as a seasonal camp for nomads
1. Two large mosques still extant
2. Famous for its intellectual vitality because Muslim scholars congregated to debate tenets of Islam
4. East Africa and the Indian Ocean
1. Eastern and Southern African regions were also integrated into long-distance trading systems
1. Wind patterns made East Africa a logical endpoint for Indian Ocean trade
2. Swahili peoples living along the coast of East Africa became active brokers with the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf territories, and India's west coast
3. Most valued trade commodity was gold
1. Mined between Limpopo and Zambezi rivers
2. Mined by Shona-speaking peoples
2. Commercial integration of the Swahili and Shona peoples enabled products to flow from the interior to the coast
1. A great meeting ground for trade was the island of Madagascar
1. Madagascar became one of the most intermixed and multicultural places in the world
5. The Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean Slave Trade
1. African slaves valued as much as gold
1. After Islam spread into Africa, sailing techniques improved through shared technology
2. Slave trade across the Sahara and Indian Ocean boomed
2. This slave system was unlike the chattel slavery found much later in the Americas
1. Quran attempted to mitigate the severity of slavery by requiring slave owners to treat their slaves with kindness and generosity
2. Quran praised manumission of slaves as an act of piety
3. African slave trade flourished under Islam, and slaves filled a variety of roles in the slave-importing societies
1. Slaves were pressed into military duties
2. Some were valued for their seafaring skills and ended up as crew aboard Muslim trading dhows
3. Women mostly used for domestic servants
4. Other enslaved women forced to be concubines of powerful Muslim political figures and businessmen
5. Enslaved peoples worked on plantations, especially in lower Iraq
1. In the ninth century slaves revolted on those plantations
4. Slaves were prized for their labor and as status symbols for owners
5. These societies owned many slaves, but the economic forces and social structures of the communities did not rely on mass ownership of human beings like it did in the Antebellum American South
6. Islam in a Time of Instability
1. Islam had the same burst of expansion, prosperity, and cultural diversification that had swept the rest of the Afro-Eurasian world
1. The peoples of Islam remained politically fractured even with their common religious beliefs
2. The dream of trying to unify and centralize the rule of an Islamic state ended in 1258 when the Mongols sacked Baghdad
2. Islam responded to instability by undergoing major changes
1. Commercial networks carried the word of the Quran
2. Islam became more open and embraced a variety of cultures
3. The world acquired another "core" region centered in what is now called the Middle East
4. By the thirteenth century, India and China were the more technologically advanced and prosperous agrarian societies
1. Trade was the main source of prosperity
7. Afro-Eurasian Merchants
1. Long-distance merchants most responsible for integrating Islamic worlds
2. Merchants were as diverse as their business
3. Long-distance trade surged because an advanced legal framework supported it
1. Mercantile community was self-policing because of the need to maintain reputation
2. Customers and traders were confident agreements would be honored thanks to partnerships, letters of credit, knowledge of local trade customs and currency
8. Diversity and Uniformity in Islam
1. Muslim rulers and cleric had to deal with large non-Muslim populations
1. Muslim rulers granted non-Muslims religious toleration if they followed Muslim political authority
2. Non-Muslims had to pay a special toleration tax called the jizya
3. Non-Muslims had to be properly deferential to their rulers
1. Wearing special clothing
2. Dismounting from their horses when passing important Muslim leaders
4. Regulations shaped the dhimma system, which granted protection to religious minorities
5. Religious tolerance helped make Islamic cities hospitable environments for traders from around the world
2. Islam was an expansionist faith
1. Intense proselytizing carried the sacred word to new frontiers
2. Also spread Islamic institutions that supported more commercial exchanges
3. Islam was not a uniform faith
1. Sufism as Islam's mystical movement
2. It was inside the Sufi brotherhoods that Islam became a religion to the people
3. Sufi orders brought about massive converts from Christianity
4. The Mevlevi Sufi order is famed for the ceremonial dancing of its whirling dervishes
9. Political Integration and Disintegration, 1050-1300 C.E.
1. From 950 to 1050, it appeared that Shiism would be a vehicle for uniting the whole of the Islamic world
1. Fatimid Shiites in Egypt and North Africa
2. Abbadis state in Baghdad fell under Shiite Buyid family
3. Each created universities in Cairo and Baghdad, which ensured that Islam's two leading centers of higher learning were Shiite
2. But divisions sapped Shiism as Sunni challenged Shiite power and established their own strongholds
3. Sunni believers were mainly Turks who had migrated, not the Islamic central core from the steppe lands
4. By the thirteenth century, Islamic core had fractured into three distinctive regions
5. Islam had splinted polities
10. What Was Islam?
1. Islam evolved from Muhammad's original goal of creating a religion for Arab peoples
1. Its influence spread across Eurasia and Africa
2. Some worried about Islam's true nature
3. Heterogeneity fostered cultural blossoming as was apparent in all fields of higher learning
2. The most influential and versatile thinker was Ibn Rushd (1126-1198)
1. Ibn Rushd believed that faith and reason could be compatible
2. He believed that the proper forms of reasoning had to be entrusted to the educated class-the ulama
3. By the fourteenth century Islam had become the people's faith, not a religion of the minority
1. The agents of conversion were mainly Sufi saints and Sufi brotherhoods and not the ulama
2. Sufism spoke to the religious beliefs and experiences of ordinary men and women
4. India Up for Grabs
1. Turks brought Islam to India, but it only added to the cultural mosaic
1. India became a trading, migrating, and cultural intersection of Afro-Eurasian peoples-a nerve center for the political balance of the world
2. India had wealth but it remained splintered into the "rajas" clans
2. Invasions and Consolidations
1. Turkish warlords entered India
1. Mahmud of Gahzna was one such conqueror
2. He wanted to learn from the conquered in order to win status within Islam and make his capital a great center of Islamic learning
2. Wars over control of the plains raged until one by one the fractured kingdoms fell
3. Land-bound Turkish Muslim regime of northern India was known as the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
1. Its rulers strengthened the cultural diversity and tolerance that were part of Indian society and culture
2. The Delhi Sultanate was rich and powerful, which brought political integration but did not enforce cultural homogeneity
3. What Is India?
1. The entry of Islam into India made more of a cultural mosaic, not less
2. The Turks cooperated to a point; they became Indians but retained their Islamic beliefs
3. The sultans did not meddle with beliefs or culture and were content to collect the jizya tax
4. Islam flourished even if it did not make many new converts
1. As rulers, sultans granted lands to Islamic scholars, the ulama, and Sufi saints
5. The Delhi sultans built strongholds to defend their conquests
1. Curves of domes, arches on mosques, tombs, and palaces formed in the shape of lotus flowers were uniquely South Asian
2. Palaces and fortresses quickly evolved into prosperous cities
6. Although newcomers and locals lived in separate worlds, they blended their cultures
7. When Vedic Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, it absorbed many doctrines and practices from Buddhism
1. With the Turk invasion in the thirteenth century, leading Buddhist scholars retreated to Tibet and enhanced Buddhism there
2. Buddhist followers in India submerged in the Hindu population or converted to Islam
5. Song China, 960-1279
1. A Chinese Commercial Revolution
1. China's commercial revolution during this period had agrarian roots
1. Agriculture benefited from new metalworking technology
2. China's farmers were able to employ new and stronger iron plows
2. Manufacturing flourished
1. By 1040, the first gunpowder recipes were being written down
2. Song entrepreneur invented an array of incendiary devices
3. Song artisans produced lighter, more durable, and more beautiful porcelains
3. The Song Chinese brought about the world's first industrial revolution, producing goods for consumption far and wide
4. The growth of commerce transformed the role of money and its worldwide circulation
1. Song government was minting strings of currency
2. Merchants began to tinker with printed-paper certificates
5. Government began to print notes to pay its bills that ultimately led to runaway inflation, which destabilized the Song regime
2. New Elites
1. Commercial revolution enabled Song emperors to privilege civilian rule over military values
1. The Song undercut the powers of the hereditary aristocrat elites by establishing a government by a central bureaucracy of scholar-officials
2. Chosen by the competitive civil service exam
3. Civil officials were now drawn almost exclusively from the ranks of learned men who eventually became ruling elite
3. Negotiating with Neighbors
1. As the Song flourished, nomads on the outskirts focused on their success
2. Eventually nomadic armies such as those of the Khitan and Jurchen saw China as object of conquest
3. Song dynasts were weak because they had limited military power despite their sophisticated weapons
4. China's strength in manufacturing made economic diplomacy an option
1. Paid tribute to groups on the fringes if they were defeated such as the Liao
2. Treaties allowed the Song to continue to live in peace
5. To keep up the payments and ensure peace, the Song government printed more money, which led to runaway inflation and instability
4. What Is China?
1. Outsiders helped to define "Chinese" as the Han
1. Authentic Chinese valued civilian mores, especially those connected with education
2. Being "Chinese" meant being literate-reading, writing, and living by codes inscribed in foundational texts
2. The Chinese created the most advanced print culture
1. Private publishing industry expanded, and printing houses sprang up all over China
5. China's Neighbors
1. Under its Song rulers, China became the most populist and wealthy of the world's regions
2. Its population of more than 100 million in 1100 spread Chinese culture through trade and migration
6. The Rise of Warriors in Japan
1. The pattern of regents ruling in the name of the sacred emperor was repeated many times in Japanese history
1. Began in Heian period (794-1185)
2. New capital of Heian (today's Kyoto)
2. Intermarriage to the Heian imperial family helped the Fujiwara family consolidate its power
1. The Fujiwara nobles presided over a refined Heian culture of flower and tea ceremonies
3. Political marriages enabled the Fujiwara to control the throne
1. The rise of large private estates (called shoen) shifted the balance of power to regional elites in the provinces
2. By 1100 more than half of Japan's rice land controlled by large estates
4. Heian aristocrats ruled through political stealth and artistic style
1. Disdained the military
2. In the provinces, warriors attached to certain kinship groups gathered strength
3. As incipient samurai, they forced local warrior organizations
5. Japan became the home to multiple sources of power
1. An aristocracy
2. An imperial family
3. Local warriors known as shoguns
6. It was an alliance between local potentates and military commanders under the Kamakura shoguns who served as military proectors and brought Japan stability
7. The Cultural Mosaic of Southeast Asia
1. Southeast Asia, like India, became a crossroads of Afro-Eurasian influence.
2. The prosperity and cultural vitality of China and India spilled into Southeast Asia by land and by sea
1. Thai, Vietnamese, and Burmese gradually emerged as the largest population groups in the mainland region
3. Each population group borrowed what they could use in their own culture from the Chinese
4. In the capital at Angkor, the Khmers created the most powerful and wealthy empire in Southeast Asia
1. Water reservoirs enabled the Khmers to flourish on the great plain
2. Khmer kings used their military strength to expand kingdom into Thai and Burmese states
5. Because of its strategic location, Malaaca became perhaps the most international city in the world
1. Maritime commerce brought people to the area for trade
6. Christian Europe
1. A World of Knights
1. When the Carolingian empire collapsed, northern Europe was left open to invasion from Vikings
1. Left European peasants with no central authority to protect them from warlords
2. Warlords with their weapons came to be the unchallenged rulers of society
2. Peasants faced subjugation to the knightly class
1. Each peasant was under the authority of a lord who controlled every detail of his or her life
2. Basis of a system known as "feudalism"
3. Feudal lords watched over an agrarian breakthrough
3. Western Europe's population increased, and by 1300 almost half of Europe's people lived there
2. Eastern Europe
1. People emigrated to eastern frontiers of Europe to farm
2. Feudalism in eastern Europe was a marriage of convenience between migrating peasants and local elites
1. Eastern Europe offered the promise of freedom from arbitrary justice and imposition of forced labor
3. The Russian Lands
1. In Russian lands, western settlers and knights met an eastern brand of Christian devotion
1. This world looked toward Byzantium
2. Its cities lay at the crossroads of overland trade and migration
1. Kiev became one of the greatest cities of Europe
2. Under Iaroslave the Wise, Kiev was rebuilt to become a small-scale Constantinople on the Dnieper
1. Even had a miniature Hagia Sophia with a great dome
3. Message of the makeover city was political as well as religious because the ruler of Kiev cast himself in the mold of the emperor of Constantinople
4. He was now called the tsar/czar from the name Caesar
5. Tsar remained the title of rulers in Russia
4. What Was Christian Europe?
1. Catholicism became a mass faith that transformed the emergence of a region called "Europe"
2. Parish churches built all over
3. The clergy reached more deeply into the private lives of the laity
1. Marriage and divorce were now part of church business and not a private affair
2. After 1215, regular confession to a priest was an obligation of all Christians
3. Franciscan instilled a new Europe-wide Catholicism based on daily remorse and on the daily contemplation of the sufferings of Christ and his mother, Mary
5. Universities and Intellectuals
1. Europe acquired its first class of intellectuals
1. Formed a universities (union) first in Paris
2. Ability of the scholars to organize themselves gave them an advantage not enjoyed by their Arab contemporaries
3. Scholars endeavored to show that everything came together to show Christianity was the only religion that fully met the aspirations of all rational human beings
1. Thomas Aquinas
2. The Europe of 1300 was more culturally unified than in previous times
1. Catholicism was more accessible and had permeated more intensively
2. Leading intellectuals extolled the virtues of Christian learning and thought
3. Not a tolerant place for heretics-Jews or Muslims
6. Traders and Warriors
1. Great trading hubs emerged in Venice and Genoa as trade from east and west passed through those cities
1. Powerful families commanded trading fleets and used their deep pockets to influence dealings far and wide
7. Crusaders
1. Rome and Byzantium both sought to gain the upper hand in the scramble for European religious command; a blow to the infidel was a way to outdo each other
1. An unholy alliance evolved to push back the expanding frontiers of Islam.
2. During the eleventh century, western Europeans launched a wave of attacks against Islam
1. The First Crusade began in 1095, under a call from Pope Urban II for warrior nobility to put their violence to good use
2. Should combine their role as pilgrims and soldiers and free Jerusalem from Muslim rule
3. New concept that there was such a thing as good and just wars
4. Such wars could cancel sin
3. In 1097, 60,000 men moved all the way from northwest Europe to Jerusalem
1. Four "crusades"
2. Can't be described as successful because few stayed behind to guard the territories they had won
4. Some Christians took out their frustrations on other Christians
1. Frankish armies sacked Constantinople in 1204
5. Muslim Middle East saw the crusades as largely irrelevant
1. Long-term effect was to harden Muslim feelings against the Franks of the West
6. There were other Crusade-like campaigns of Christian expansion that were more successful
1. Launched from a secure home base
2. Spanish Reconquista pushed back the Muslims
3. Turned the tide in relations between Christian and Muslim power in the Mediterranean
7. The Americas
1. Andean States
1. Growth and prosperity led to the formation of the Chimu Empire in South America
1. The Moche people expanded their influence
2. The Chimu regime lasted until the Incas invaded and incorporated it into their empire in the 1460s
2. Chimu economy successful because it was commercialized, especially through agriculture
1. Complex irrigation systems expanded production of food
3. Between 850 and 900 C.E., the Moche peoples founded the city of Chan Chan, with walls, roads, and palaces
4. Highland empire formed on the shores of Lake Titicaca by the Tiwanaku people
1. Extensive evidence of long-distance trade between highlands and semi-tropical valleys
2. Trade was active enough to sustain an enormous urban population
2. North American Connections
1. Mesoameria saw the rise and fall of several civilizations
1. Toltecs at Teotihuacán
1. Hybrid of migrants and farmers
2. Relied on a maize-based economy
3. Merchants provided status goods
2. Tula was a commercial hub but also a political and ceremonial center
1. Temples made of giant pyramids
2. Ball courts for real and ritual sport
3. Cahokia was the largest city in North America
1. Part of the Mississippian culture
2. Landscape dominated by mounds
3. City outgrew its environment
4. Cahokia represented the growing networks of trade and migration across North America
5. North America could organize vibrant commercial societies and powerful states
8. The Mongol Transformation of Afro-Eurasia
1. Mongol conquest may have arisen from the nomads' need for grazing lands
1. New lands provided increase in wealth through taxes
2. First expansionist move followed caravan routes
1. Opportunities to raid not trade
2. The nomads began expansion in 1206 when a cluster of tribes united
1. At a clan gathering, they chose Chinggis (Genghis) Khan, or Supreme Ruler
2. Chinggis launched a series of conquests southward across the Great Wall of China and westward through Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Persia
3. Mongols also invaded Korea
4. Mongol raiders built a permanent empire by incorporating conquered peoples and absorbing their culture
1. Intermarriage
5. Through conquest Afro-Eurasian regions were connected by land and sea
3. Mongols in China
1. Kubilai, Chinggis's grandson, completed the conquest of China
2. Kubilai and his army also overran the Korean Peninsula
3. By 1280, the Mongols had established the Yuan dynasty, 1280-1368, with a new capital at Dadu
4. Political repercussion of these nomadic invasions altered the social and economic geography of China
5. Song court and its Chinese followers regrouped in the south
1. Much of the economic activity moved south to the new capital of Hangzhou
2. Hangzhou became the political center of the Chinese people
1. Gateway to South China Sea
6. Mongol armies pressed until they reached Hangzhou, which fell in 1276
1. The city survived the Mongol conquest reasonably intact
2. When Marco Polo visited in the 1280s and Ibn Battuta in the 1340s, it was still one of the greatest cities in the world
7. With the invasion, China acquired a new ruling hierarchy of outsiders
1. Chinese elites governed locally
2. Outsiders ran the central dynastic polity and collected taxes for the Mongols
4. Mongol Reverberations in Southeast Asia
1. Southeast Asia was hurt by the Mongol conquests
2. Mongols conquered the states of Sali and Pyu in Unnan and Burma
3. Portions of mainland Southeast Asia became part of the Mongol Empire and annexed to China
5. The Fall of Baghdad
1. Baghdad no longer the jewel in the Islamic crown but still important
2. Coming from the eastern steppes, Mongols set their sights on all of Asia
1. Mongke Khan, grandson of the great Chinggis Khan, ordered the invasions
2. Kubilai (brother to Mongke) appointed to rule over China, Tibet, and northern India
3. Hulagu ordered to take the western territories of Iran, Syria, Egypt, Byzantium, and Armenia
3. Hulagu encountered a feeble foe in the Baghdad caliph in 1258
1. Slaughter was vast; most perished; no quarter given
2. Baghdad became a ruin
3. Syria was next with Muslims slaughtered by the Mongols
4. Egyptian Mamluk forces finally stopped the advance of the Mongols in 1261
1. Mongols were better at conquering than controlling
2. Had a hard time ruling their newfound territories
5. In China and Persia, Mongol rule collapsed in the fourteenth century
6. Mongol conquest shaped the social landscape of Afro-Eurasia
7. The conquest transformed Islam as it was stripped of its power center, Baghdad
8. Once the conquests ended, the Mongol state promoted the interconnectedness of Afro-Eurasia
9. Conclusion
1. Trade and migration across long distances made Afro-Eurasia prosper and become more integrated
1. At the center of Afro-Eurasia, Islam was firm
2. India became a commercial crossroads
3. China boomed and poured its manufactures into trading networks
2. Trade helped define the parts of the world
1. Helped create new classes of people-thinkers, writers, and scientists
2. By 1300 territories were reimagined as world regions with definable cultures and defensible geographic boundaries
3. Neither Sub-Saharan Africa nor the Americas saw that kind of integration
4. Great African culture flourished as they came into contact with commercial traders
5. American people also built great centers of trade and culture
3. By 1300, the Afro-Eurasian regional worlds were interconnected by trade, migration, and conflict
1. Mongol invasion added interconnectedness once they controlled the vast territories of Afro--Eurasia
2. Sea lanes also became an important source of trade networks
4. With the rise of the Mongol Empire, the regions of the world became those that we now recognize as the cultural spheres of our modern world

 

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