Japan, Russia, and China

Japan, Russia, and China all sought to expand their borders.

Japanese Transformation and Expansion

Facing the unequal treaties imposed by American Commodore Matthew Perry, Japan determined to modernize and adapt. Led by the Meiji Emperor, reforms in education, the military, local administration, and so forth, quickly produced a strong national identity among Japanese. Economic transformation occurred even as the Meiji government fashioned a modern constitution. Great corporations, like Mitsubishi, dominated the Japanese economy and contributed to impressive growth rates.

Like other modernizing powers, Japan turned to territorial expansion. The Ryu¯kyu¯s were taken first, with ventures in Korea following shortly thereafter. Competition with China resulted in the Sino-Japanese War (1895) in which Japan won handily. For their efforts, the Japanese gained Taiwan and, later, the annexation of Korea. As in colonies elsewhere, the colonial masters exploited resources and introduced modernization, but only for their own benefit. Profit from the colonies reverted back to Meiji modernization programs.

Russian Transformation and Expansion

Expanding southwest and east, the Russians utilized the model of territorial integration employed in the Americas. Defeated in the Crimean War, Russian leaders determined to embark on a modernization program to ensure against similar fates in the future. Reforms affected all aspects of Russian life: peasant livelihood, military systems, education, industry, and so forth. Reforms also brought critics of the autocratic regime, however, and fragmented Russian society. Expansion helped redeem the regime by earning the respect of Russia’s people. Conquest was followed by waves of settlers to increase Russia’s influence.

In East Asia, expansion into the Amur River basin brought Russians in contact with the Chinese. Deciding to concentrate its efforts in Asia, Russia sold Alaska to the United States and proceeded to construct the transcontinental railroad. Expansion helped unify Russians somewhat, but also added over a hundred new nationalities to the mix. Control came by centralized authority as Russia sought to assimilate these peoples. Ultimately, expansionism stretched Russian resources even as Russia sought to keep its external enemies at bay.

China under Pressure

Unlike the Japanese or Russians, the Chinese did not view European expansion as a threat. Worried more about internal conflict, the Qing court repeatedly underestimated the power of European might. The Self-Strengthening Movement sought to arm China with Europe’s superior weaponry, but did not produce the quality of experts or modernized equipment as first hoped. Chinese did expand into frontiers like Taiwan (before Japan took it away) and Xinjiang as population pressures rose, but they did not accompany expansion with modernization. Newspapers were one exception.

China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War led many to call for widespread reforms. The reform movement, however, failed when the emperor’s aunt arrested the young emperor and executed all reformers taken into custody. China’s system remained too wedded to the traditional Confucian system to adequately respond to the challenges of Western-style modernity.