Chapter 22: Imperialism and Colonialism
Chapter Summary
Imperialism, defined as the process of extending one state's control over another, was not a new phenomenon in late-19th century Europe. The antecedents of imperialist endeavor are perhaps as old as human society itself. However, by the last half of the 19th century European imperialism had grown more complex and varied. Economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution created an environment in which European capitalists and financiers were made aware of the huge profits to be made by overseas trade. Many problems of manufacture had been resolved, and with the Second Industrial Revolution of the late 19th century, new industries based on chemicals and electricity had once again changed the industrial landscape of Europe and indeed, the world.
Historians have called the late 19th century quest for empire the "new imperialism." That expression is perhaps well-chosen. What was different about imperialist endeavors at this time was that it came in many forms. While some nations sought a direct form of imperialism called colonialism, other nations opted for a more indirect form of rule whereby agreements were reached between Europeans and indigenous leaders. Regardless of what form the new imperialism took, it is certain that economic interests played a major role. But to focus only on economic causes would mean the neglect of other causes, sometimes more subtle. For instance, some historians have stressed strategic or nationalist motives over economic interests. Meanwhile, the great powers of Europe -- Britain, France, Germany, Russia -- and the United States, supported imperialism as a means of restoring national prestige and honor. There were cultural forces at work as well. The "civilizing mission" of France highlights the notion that there were worlds outside Europe that needed to be civilized. In England, Rudyard Kipling wrote about the "white man's burden" to civilize what he and others considered as the "barbaric" territories of the globe. This cultural dimension was indeed important since nations never could have embarked on the perilous path of imperialism without the support of their own people. Newspapers, magazines and popular literature made their own contribution to imperialism by making it appear to be both natural and necessary. In addition, the Social Darwinists and prophets of eugenics all made clear that the survival of the fittest, which meant the fittest race, depended on subduing the "uncivilized" peoples of the world.
Of course, we live today in a world that is based on the principles of globalization, a sort of "new" new imperialism. In the 20th century, the new imperialism would come to haunt the great powers who were at such pains to build their empires in the late 19th century. All the great empires of the 19th century have been dismantled to some degree. But something remains, a much more subtle form of imperialism, that would have profound ramifications throughout the 20th century and beyond.
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