StudySpace: Western Civilizations, 16 e.

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1. Introduction
1. After Waterloo -- Europe without revolution?
2. Citizens and new political ideologies
3. Industrial change and social change
4. Romanticism
2. Back to the Future: Restoring Order 1815-1830
1. The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration
1. Central cast
1. Russia: Alexander I (1777-1825, r. 1801-1825)
1. Enlightened monarch and absolutist monarch
2. 1801: succeeds his murdered father
3. Presents himself as the "liberator" of Europe
4. Europe feared an all-powerful Russia as they had feared an all-powerful France
2. France: Prince Charles Maurice de Tallyrand (1754-1859)
1. Bishop and revolutionary
2. Escaped the Terror by exiling himself to the United States
3. Served under Napoleon then turned against him
4. Foreign minister to Louis XVIII
3. Russia: Klemens von Metternich (1773-1838)
1. The "architect of the Peace"
2. Lifelong hatred of political change
3. Feared Alexander might provoke another revolution
4. His peace prevented a major European war until 1914
2. Goals of the Congress
1. The restoration of order and "legitimate" authority
2. Recognized Louis XVIII as legitimate sovereign of France
3. Restored Bourbon leaders in Spain and the two Sicilies
4. The prevention French expansion
5. Germany and Poland
1. The Confederation of the Rhine
2. Independent kingdoms of Bavaria, Wurttemburg, and Saxony
3. A nominally independent kingdom of Poland
6. British compensations
1. Received French territories in South Africa and South America
3. The "Concert of Europe"
1. Securing the peace and creating permanent stability
2. Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form the Quadruple Alliance
1. In 1818, joined by France (the Quintuple Alliance)
2. Cooperation in the suppression of all disturbances to the peace
3. Alexander and the "Holy Alliance"
4. Established a ruler's legitimacy based on international treaties and not divine right
2. Revolt against Restoration
1. Secret organizations: the Carbonari
1. Vowed to oppose the government in Vienna
2. Spread through southern Europe and France in the 1820s
3. Aims
1. Some called for a constitution
2. Others sang the praises of Bonaparte
2. Naples and the Piedmont
1. Opposition turned to revolt
2. Restored monarchs abandoned their promises
3. Metternich summons Austrian, Prussian, and Russian representatives
1. The Troppau memorandum (1820)
1. Declared they would aid each other in suppressing revolution
2. France and Britain declined to sign
3. Revolution in Latin America
1. The unsteady foundations of colonial rule
2. Argentina declares independence (1816)
3. The liberation of Chile and Peru
4. Simon de Bolivar (1783-1830)
1. Led uprisings from Venezuela across to Bolivia
5. Political revolts unleashed conflict and civil war
1. Some elites sought liberation from Spain
2. Radicals wanted land reforms and an end to slavery
3. The repression of radical movements
6. Metternich and the conservative response -- no revolutions in Latin America
7. The United States
1. The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
1. Warned Europe that intervention in the New World was an unfriendly act
8. Britain
1. Recognized South American republics
2. New trading partner
9. Brazil declares independence (1822)
4. Russia: the Decembrists
1. Death of Tsar Alexander I (1825)
2. The Decembrists
1. Most came from noble families or were members of elite regiments
2. Saw Russia as the "liberator of Europe"
3. Russia needed reform
1. Serfdom contradicted the promise of liberation
2. Curbing the tsar's power
4. No political program
1. Ranged from constitutional monarchs to Jacobin republicans
2. Wanted Constantine to assume the throne and guarantee a constitution
3. Nicholas I (1796-1855, r. 1825-1855)
1. Crushed the Decembrist revolt
2. The Third Section (secret police force)
1. The culture of fear and suspicion
4. Signs of change
1. The bureaucracy became more centralized and efficient
2. Less dependence on the nobility for political support
3. The codification of the legal system (1832)
4. landowners reorganized their estates
5. Southeastern Europe: Balkans (Greece and Serbia)
1. Local movements in Greece and Serbia began to demand autonomy
2. Greek war for independence (1821-1827)
1. European sympathy and European identity
2. Christians cast the rebellion as a war between Christianity and Islam
1. A crusade for liberty
2. A crusade to preserve the classical heritage (Philhellenism)
3. Delacroix, Massacre at Chios (1824)
4. Celebrating Greeks and demonizing Turks
5. British, French, and Russian troops went in against the Turks (1827)
6. The London Protocols (1829/1830)
1. Established Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire
3. Serbia
1. Europe sides with the Serbs against the Ottomans
2. Serbian semi-independence
1. An Orthodox Christian principality under Ottoman rule
4. Results
1. European opportunism
2. Greece and Serbia did not break close ties with the Ottomans
3. Taking Sides: New Ideologies in Politics
1. Principles of conservatism
1. The concept of legitimacy as a general anti-revolutionary policy
2. The monarchy was a guarantee of political stability
1. The nobility as the rightful leaders of the nation
3. Change must be slow, incremental, and managed
4. Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
1. Reflection son the Revolution in France (1790)
2. Opposed all talk of natural rights (too abstract)
3. The dangers of human reason
4. Deference to experience, tradition, and history
5. Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) and Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise Bonald (1754-1840)
1. Defended absolute monarchy
2. The Catholic Church
6. The monarchy, aristocracy, and Church as mainstays of the social and political order
7. The revival of religion
1. Expressed a popular reaction against revolution
2. Emphasis on order, discipline, and tradition
2. Liberalism
1. The commitment to individual liberties and rights
2. Most important function of government was to protect these rights
1. Justice, knowledge, and progress
3. Components
1. Equality before the law
2. Government rests on the consent of the governed
3. Laissez-faire economic principles
4. The roots of liberalism
1. John Locke
2. American and French Revolutions
3. Inalienable rights
1. Freedom from arbitrary authority, imprisonment, or censorship
2. Freedom of the press
3. The right to assemble
4. Written constitutions
5. Advocated direct representation in government (for property-owners)
6. Economic liberalism
1. Adam Smith (1723-1790), The Wealth of Nations (1976)
1. Attacked mercantilism in the name of free markets
2. The economy should be based on a "system of natural liberty"
2. Political economy
1. Identified basic economic laws (supply and demand, balance of trade)
3. David Ricardo (1772-1823)
1. Laws of wages and rents
4. Economic activity ought to be unconstrained
1. Labor contracted freely
2. Property unencumbered by feudal restrictions
3. Goods to circulate freely
4. An end to government granted monopolies
5. The government should preserve order and protect property
7. Liberty and freedom
1. In lands occupied by foreign powers, liberty meant freedom from foreign rule
2. Central and Southeastern Europe
1. The elimination of feudal privilege
2. More rights for local parliaments
3. Great Britain
1. Expanding the franchise
2. Laissez-faire economics and free trade
3. Creating a limited and efficient government
4. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
1. The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
2. Human interests are not naturally harmonious
3. Utilitarianism -- "the greatest happiness of the greatest number"
3. Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism
1. Republicans
1. Demanded constitutions and governments by the people
2. An expanded franchise and democratic participation in politics
2. Socialism
1. Raising the "social question" as an urgent political matter
2. Socialism as a response to rapid industrialization
1. The intensification of labor, miseries of the working-classes, and social class
2. Competition, individualism, and private property
3. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
1. Builds a model workshop at New Lanark (Scotland)
2. The principles of cooperation not profitability
3. Organized good housing and sanitation, free schooling, social security
4. Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
1. The abolition of the wage system
2. The division of labor based on natural inclinations
3. Complete equality of the sexes
5. Louis Blanc (1811-1882)
1. Campaigned for universal male suffrage
2. Giving working men control of the state
3. "Associations of producers"
6. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)
1. What is Property? -- "property is theft"
4. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and socialism
1. Influenced by Hegel's philosophy
2. Studied philosophy but became a journalist
1. The Rheinische Zeitung (1842-843)
2. Marx exiled to Paris, then Brussels, then London
3. Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
1. Experience in the Manchester textile factories
2. The Condition of the Working Classes in England (1844)
4. Marx and Engels join the League of the Just (1847, renamed the Communist League)
5. The Communist Manifesto (1948)
1. History and conflict
1. Master and slave
2. Lord and serf
3. Bourgeois and proletariat
2. Capitalism would "dig its own grave"
3. With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would seize the state
4. Communism
5. Dialectical materialism
5. Citizenship and community: nationalism
1. Nation, from the Latin nasci ("to be born")
2. The French Revolution defined nation to mean the people, or the sovereign people
3. Celebrating a new political community, not a territory or ethnicity
4. Nationalism in the early 19th century
1. Nation symbolized legal equality, constitutional government, and an end to feudal privilege
2. nationalism as a threat to the local power of aristocratic elites
5. Nationalism and the liberals
1. Associated with political transformations
2. The "awakening" of the common people
3. But nationalism could undermine liberalism as well
1. Nationalism might require the sacrifice of some freedoms
6. National identity developed and changed historically
7. Nationalism and the state
1. Developing national feelings
2. Linking citizens to the state
3. Educational systems taught a "national" language
4. "Inventing" a national heritage
4. Cultural Revolt: Romanticism
1. General observations
1. A diverse intellectual and cultural movement
2. A reaction against the Classicism of the 18th century
3. Instead of reason and discipline, Romanticism embraced emotion, freedom, and imagination
4. The individual, individuality, and the subjective experience
5. Intuition, emotion, and feelings as the guides to truth
2. British Romantic poetry
1. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)
1. Lyrical Ballads
2. Compassion and feeling bind all men together
3. Nature as humanity's most trusted teacher
2. William Blake (1757-1827)
1. Individual imagination and the poetic vision
2. Fierce critic of industrial society
3. The imagination could awaken human sensibilities
3. George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)
1. Poetry was the "lava of imagination"
2. An aristocrat who rebelled against conformity and inhibition
3. His Romanticism was inseparable from his liberal politics
4. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
1. Prometheus Unbound (1820)
2. Defined romantic heroism and the cult of individual audacity
3. Women writers, gender, and Romanticism
1. Mary Godwin Shelley (1797-1851)
1. Daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft
2. Fascination with contemporary scientific developments
3. Frankenstein, or, the Modern Prometheus (1818)
1. A twisted creation myth
2. Individual genius gone wrong
2. George Sand (1804-1876)
1. Defying convention
2. Rebellion against middle-class moral values
3. Madame de Staël (1766-1817)
1. Popularized German Romanticism in France
2. De l'Allemagne (Germany, 1810)
3. Suggested that men could be emotional and that men and women shared a common human nature
4. Romantic painting
1. Britain
1. John Constable (1776-1837)
1. "It is the soul that sees"
2. Emphasized the artist's individual technique
2. J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851)
1. Intensely subjective, personal, and imaginative
2. Experimented with brush strokes and color
2. France
3. Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863)
4. New ways of visualizing the world
5. Pointed to early 20th century modernism
5. Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation
1. Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
1. Dealt sympathetically with the experience of the common people
2. Nôtre Dame de Paris (1831) and Les Misérables (1862)
2. François de Chataubriand (1768-1848)
1. The Genius of Christianity (1802)
2. Religious experiences of the national past are woven into the present
3. Accent on religious emotion, feeling, and subjectivity
3. The Romantic uniqueness of cultures
1. Johann von Herder (1744-1803)
1. Ideas for a Philosophy of Human History
2. Civilization arises out of the Volk (common people) not elites
3. The Volkgeist -- spirit or genius of the people
4. Brothers Grimm
1. Grimm's Fairy Tales (1812-1815)
2. Collected German folktales
5. Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) and William Tell
1. A rallying cry fir German national consciousness
6. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)
7. Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), Pan Tadeusz (1834)
6. Orientalism
1. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt (1798)
1. Brought back the Rosetta stone
2. Establishment of the Egyptian Institute
3. The Description of Egypt (23 volumes, 1809-1823)
2. Defining Europe by looked at the Orient
3. A fascination with ethnography and new regions
4. Looking for the roots of Christianity
5. Fascination with medieval history and religion (especially the Crusades)
6. The "oriental renaissance"
7. Goethe and Beethoven
1. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
1. The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774)
1. Yearnings and restless love
2. Backed away from the excesses of Romanticism
3. Faust (1790)
1. Faust sells his soul to the devil in return for eternal youth and universal knowledge
2. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-11827)
1. A Classicist and Romantic
2. Glorification of nature and individuality
3. The poetry of instrumental music
4. Raised music as an art form at the center of the Romantic movement
3. Goethe and Beethoven as transitional figures
5. Reform and Revolution
1. The 1830 Revolution in France
1. Louis XVIII succeeded by Charles X (1757-1836, r. 1824-1830)
1. Determined to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and Napoleon
2. Appeased the ultra-royalists by compensating nobility whose land had been confiscated during the Revolution
3. Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place
4. Provoked widespread discontent
2. Charles calls new elections then tried to overthrow the parliamentary regime
3. The July Ordinances (1830)
1. Dissolved the newly elected chamber before it had even met
2. Imposed strict censorship of the press
3. Further restriction of the suffrage to exclude all non-nobles
4. Called for new elections
4. Revolution
1. Paris takes to the streets for three days of battles
2. The abdication of Charles
5. Louis Philippe (1773-1850, r. 1830-1848)
1. Promoted as a constitutional monarch
2. The July Monarchy
1. Doubled the number of eligible voters
2. Voting remained a privilege
6. Major winners -- the propertied classes
2. Belgium and Poland in 1830
1. Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland
1. Never popular in Belgium
2. News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition
3. Brussels rebelled and the great powers guaranteed Belgian neutrality (in force until 1914)
4. Poland
1. Not an independent state -- under Russian governance
2. Had its own parliament, a constitution, and guarantees of basic liberties
3. Ignored by Russian-imposed head of state, Constantine
4. Moved toward revolt in 1830
5. Drove Constantine out
6. By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw
7. Poland placed under Russian military rule
3. Reform in Great Britain
1. The end of the Napoleonic wars
1. Agricultural depression, low wages, unemployment, and bad harvests
2. Social unrest
2. Peterloo (1819)
3. Parliament passes the Six Acts (1819)
1. Outlawed "seditious and blasphemous" literature
2. Increased stamp tax
3. Restricted the right of public meeting
4. Tory reforms
1. Some toleration for Catholics and Dissenters
2. Refused to reform political representation in the House of Commons
5. Liberal reforms
1. Whigs, industrial middle-classes, and radical artisans demand reform
2. The desire to enfranchise "responsible" citizens
6. Reform Bill of 1832
1. Eliminated "rotten" boroughs
2. Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to the industrial north
3. Expanded the franchise
4. The political strength of landed aristocratic interests remained
7. The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
1. Corn Laws protected British landlords from foreign competition
2. Kept the price of bread artificially high
3. The Anti-Corn Law League
1. Held large meetings throughout northern England
2. Lobbied members in Parliament
3. Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws
4. British radicalism and the Chartist Movement
1. The "Six Points" of the People's Charter
1. Universal white male suffrage
2. The secret ballot
3. Abolition of property qualification for membership in the Commons
4. Annual parliamentary elections
5. Payment of salaries to members of the Commons
6. Equal electoral districts
2. With deteriorating economic conditions, Chartism spread in the 1840s
3. Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals
1. William Lovett
1. Self-improvement
2. Education of artisans was he answer
2. Feargus O'Connor
1. Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of workers
2. Attacked industrialization
3. Bronterre O'Brien
1. Openly admired Robespierre
4. Opposition to the Chartists
5. Chartists presented petitions to Parliament (1839 and 1842) -- both rejected
6. April 1848: Chartists plan a major demonstration and show of force in London
1. 25,000 workers march to Parliament with a petition of 6 million signatures demanding the Six Points
2. The failure of Chartism
5. The Hungry Forties and the Revolutions of 1848
1. The poor harvests of the early 1840s
2. Doubling of food prices
3. Bread riots
4. Cyclical industrial slowdowns and unemployment
6. The French Revolution of 1848
1. July Monarchy under Charles X seemed little different from that of Louis XVIII
2. Political crises
1. Republican disillusionment
2. Republican societies proliferate
3. Rebellions in Lyons and Paris
3. The banquet of February 22, 1848
1. The French government banned the meeting
2. The revolution begins
3. Louis Philippe abdicates
4. Provisional government
1. A combination of liberals, republicans, and socialists
2. A new constitution based on universal male suffrage
3. Tensions between middle-class republicans and socialists
5. The "National Workshops"
1. A program of public works in and around Paris
2. Planned to support 12,000 workers
3. Unemployment reached 65%
4. Workers streamed in to join the Workshop
1. 66,000 (April), 120,000 (June)
6. Popular politics
1. Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of speech and political activity
2. Women's clubs and newspapers appeared
7. The end of the National Workshops
1. French assembly decides the Workshops were a financial drain
1. May -- closed the Workshops to future enrollment
2. June 21 -- the government ends the program
8. The June Days (June 23-26): Parisian workers barricade the streets
9. Repression
1. 3000 killed, 12,000 arrested
10. The government of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873)
1. Spent most of his life in exile
2. Used his position to consolidate his power
3. permitted Catholics to regain control of the schools
4. Banned meetings, workers' associations
5. Asked the people to grant him the power to draw up a new constitution (1851)
11. The Second Empire of Napoleon III (1852-1870)
12. Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France
1. Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere
2. The pivotal role of the middle-classes
3. Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle
1. Shattered many liberal aspirations
4. Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply differentiated
6. Conclusion
1. The partial success of the Congress of Vienna
2. The Revolution of 1848 as the opening act of a larger drama

 

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