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","1915,4,1,10,1,19,1,88,1","1916,4,2,10,1,11,1,45,1,396,1","1917,4,1,11,1,32,1,47,1","1919,4,1,10,1","1920,28,1,61,3,220,1","1920s,43,3,57,1,63,1,511,1","1921,43,1","1922,33,1","1923,4,1,11,1","1924,4,1,11,1","1925,68,2","1929,4,2,10,1,11,1,61,1,166,1","1930,4,4,10,1,11,2,21,1,28,1,32,1,33,2,40,1,49,1,381,2,382,1,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","1930s,4,1,11,1,33,1,41,1,43,4,60,1,391,1,393,1,482,1","1932,4,2,10,1,11,1,63,1","1933,4,2,11,2","1934,4,1,11,1,28,1,33,1,43,1,55,1","1937,4,2,11,2","1938,4,1,11,1,384,1","1940,23,1,32,1,47,1,61,4,66,3","1940s,24,1,34,2,382,1","1941,38,1","1943,34,1","1944,4,1,12,1,23,1","1945,4,6,11,2,12,2,32,1","1946,4,1,12,1,60,1","1947,4,2,12,2","1948,4,2,11,1,12,1,30,1","1949,385,1,393,1","1950,4,1,12,1,42,1,33,1,381,1","1950s,29,3,30,1,37,1,38,1,52,1,60,1,377,1,388,1","1952,4,2,12,2,61,1","1953,34,1","1954,4,2,12,2,23,3,393,1","1955,4,1,12,1,34,1,157,1,392,1","1956,4,1,12,1","1957,121,1","1958,4,1,12,1","1959,29,4,383,1","1960,4,6,12,3,13,1,385,1","1960s,4,1,12,1,24,3,34,1,43,2,50,2,63,1,238,1,383,1,385,1,392,1,395,2,396,1","1961,4,2,12,1,13,1,397,1","1962,4,1,12,1","1963,19,1,396,1,397,1","1964,4,2,13,2,22,1,25,1,33,1","1965,53,1","1966,4,1,13,1,22,1,24,2,62,1,392,1,396,1","1967,4,1,13,1,24,1,43,1,393,1","1968,4,4,12,2,13,2,22,1,386,1","1969,54,1,396,1","1970,4,1,13,1,28,1,54,1,55,1","1970s,4,1,13,1,24,3,25,3,34,3,43,1,50,3,63,1,65,1,238,1,392,1,391,2,395,2,396,1","1971,57,1,63,1,377,1,386,1","1972,31,1,61,1,378,1,395,2","1973,4,2,13,2,34,1,50,3,91,1,380,3,386,1","1974,54,1,61,1,65,1","1975,4,1,13,1,42,1","1976,28,1,42,1,50,1,394,1,396,1","1977,24,1,26,1,37,1,44,1,54,1","1978,4,2,13,2,48,1,55,1,393,1","1979,26,1,36,1,40,1,52,1,151,1","1980,19,1,20,1,26,1,28,2,42,1,33,1,66,1","1980s,4,1,13,1,21,1,25,1,30,1,39,1,43,1,63,7,226,1,381,2,382,1,383,1,386,4,387,2,388,3,391,2,393,1,395,1,511,1","1981,58,1,384,1","1982,4,1,13,1,38,1,63,1,377,1,378,1,386,1,397,1","1983,4,1,13,1,28,1,34,1,35,1,50,2,64,1,381,1,395,2","1984,4,1,13,1,50,1,52,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,395,2","1985,4,1,13,1,21,1,25,1,28,2,38,1,43,1,52,1,55,2,65,1,380,1,381,1,387,1","1986,42,1,48,1,53,1,41,1,43,1,49,1,50,1,54,2,58,1,61,1,377,1,388,1","1987,24,1,26,1,34,2,40,1,43,1,54,1","1988,23,1,33,1,34,1,52,1,55,1,62,1,65,1,396,1","1989,21,1,22,1,26,1,28,1,29,3,36,2,49,1,50,2,130,1,382,2,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,393,1","1990,4,5,13,2,14,1,28,1,32,1,36,3,39,1,43,1,59,2,66,2,226,1,383,1,384,1,392,1,395,1","1990s,4,1,14,1,21,1,25,3,34,1,39,1,46,1,63,1,381,1,383,1,387,1,392,1,394,1","1991,25,1,31,1,32,1,34,1,41,1,43,1,45,1,56,1,57,1,66,2,379,1,382,1,386,2,387,2,388,1,391,3,393,1","1992,4,1,13,1,21,2,25,1,42,1,48,2,34,1,39,1,40,1,43,1,45,1,52,1,55,1,85,1,235,1,378,1,384,1,387,1,390,1","1993,21,1,23,1,26,2,29,1,48,2,52,1,54,1,59,1,65,1,178,1,377,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,383,1,393,1","1994,4,3,14,3,24,1,28,1,29,1,48,2,53,1,33,1,39,1,44,1,46,1,59,1,60,1,66,2,380,1,388,1","1995,4,1,14,1,21,1,23,1,25,1,29,1,35,1,39,1,40,1,47,2,54,1,57,1,60,2,61,1,63,1,65,1,66,1,377,1,383,1,384,1,386,1,390,2","1996,23,1,27,1,53,3,34,3,38,1,39,1,40,1,56,1,57,1,63,1,380,2,381,1","1997,22,1,25,1,28,1,29,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,44,1,45,1,50,1,59,2,60,1,61,1","1998,20,2,24,2,28,1,42,1,33,2,37,1,39,1,40,1,41,2,47,1,43,1,44,1,54,1,56,1,60,1,380,1,382,2","1999,20,1,23,1,26,1,28,1,29,1,33,1,36,1,37,1,47,1,45,1,49,1,54,1,55,1,57,1,59,1,62,3,63,1,64,1,217,1,379,3,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,390,3,392,1,391,1","20,4,1,10,1,196,1,388,1","2000,20,1,23,1,35,1,36,1,41,1,43,1,49,1,54,2,58,1,56,1,65,1,379,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,390,2,392,1,391,1,394,1","2001,4,1,15,1,21,1,53,1,32,1,35,1,36,1,45,1,60,1,61,1,64,1,65,1,94,1,377,1,380,2,390,1","2002,3,3,4,1,15,1,23,1,25,2,30,1,40,1,41,1,43,1,49,1,51,2,54,1,58,1,57,1,60,2,61,1,62,2,64,1,65,1,244,1,377,1,379,1,381,1,383,1,395,2","2003,3,2,20,1,23,1,25,4,26,1,27,1,28,1,30,2,48,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,36,1,40,3,41,2,54,1,58,3,56,1,62,1,65,2,377,1,378,2,379,1,380,1,383,1,384,1,390,1,391,1,393,2","2004,3,1,4,1,15,1,20,2,21,2,26,1,27,1,29,2,30,2,42,1,48,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,49,2,50,1,51,2,54,2,55,1,57,1,60,1,62,1,65,2,390,1,394,1,395,2","2005,23,1,25,1,42,1,65,2","2006,3,1,2,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,30,1,48,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,390,1,392,1,391,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","201,24,1","206,24,1","21,4,1,10,1","22,4,1,10,1","23,4,1,10,1","238,3,1","24,3,1,4,2,10,2","25,3,1,4,1,10,1","250,124,1","26,3,1,4,1,11,1,50,1","267,50,1","27,3,1,4,1,11,1","274,3,1","28,4,2,11,2,53,1,101,1","29,4,1,11,1,24,1","291,3,1","2nd,20,1,26,1,29,1,30,1,48,1,36,2,54,2,58,1,63,1,65,1,66,1,377,1,383,2,384,2,386,1,390,1,393,1,395,1","30,4,1,11,1,130,1","302,3,1","30s,43,1","31,4,2,12,2","32,4,1,12,1","33,3,1,4,2,10,1,12,1,50,1","34,4,2,10,1,12,1","35,4,2,11,1,12,1","36,3,1,4,1,13,1,102,1","37,4,1,13,1,50,1","375,3,1","38,3,1,4,1,14,1","39,4,2,8,1,15,1","3rd,24,1,41,1,53,1,379,1,380,1,382,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,392,1,391,2,393,1,396,1","40,4,3,8,2,11,1,26,1","400,3,1,26,1","408,3,1","40s,4,1,8,1","44,3,1","48,4,1,8,1","49,4,1,5,1,54,1","492,3,1","4th,391,1","50,100,1","500,133,1","50s,24,1","51,3,1","52,4,1,8,1","523,3,1","54,4,1,12,1","545,53,1","566,53,1","59,4,1,10,1","5th,44,1,383,1,390,1","61,3,1","626,3,1","63,3,1","65,3,1","66,3,1,4,1,6,1","67,3,1","68,3,1,62,1","69,3,2","70,3,3,4,1,9,1,62,1","700,3,1","71,3,1","72,3,1","73,3,2","737,62,1","74,3,3,4,1,13,1","744,3,1","75,53,1","750,3,1,390,1","76,3,4","762,3,1","77,3,2","79,3,1","80,3,1,101,1","80s,391,1","819,3,1","83,4,1,6,1","84,3,2,4,1,9,1","85,3,1,26,1","86,3,2,22,1,48,1,50,1","878,3,1","89,226,1","90,3,1","900,4,1,10,1,44,1","900s,44,1","90s,4,2,6,1,10,1,388,1","91,3,2,49,1","913,244,1","92,3,2","924,3,1","93,3,1","945,3,1","95,3,2,4,1,14,1","96,3,1","963,3,1","97,3,2","980,3,1","99,3,1,4,1,6,1","994,3,1","aacute,4,7,6,1,8,1,9,1,11,3,15,1,18,2,21,1,22,3,24,8,25,1,26,4,30,2,48,2,32,2,34,1,44,1,45,2,53,1,50,1,54,1,57,2,60,1,61,1,63,4,65,3,377,2,382,1,384,1,385,1,390,1,393,1,395,2,397,2","abc,40,1","abdicates,4,1,8,1","ability,48,1,53,1,64,1","able,25,2,27,1,48,1,53,1,61,1,62,1,380,1,381,1","abolish,4,1,9,1","abolished,54,1","abolition,4,2,9,1,17,1,20,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,48,1,34,1,40,1,47,1,42,2,53,1,49,1,52,1,54,9,55,1,379,1,383,1","abolitionism,54,1","abolitionist,54,2","abound,396,1","abridged,35,1","abruptly,56,1,380,1","absence,47,1","absolutely,41,1","absorption,48,1","abundant,390,1","accelerated,54,1,199,1","accelerating,394,1","accent,377,2,381,1","accents,42,1,377,1,397,1","acceptance,64,1","access,38,1,43,1,54,1,58,1","accessible,48,2,37,1,59,1,377,1,378,1,379,2,380,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,392,1,391,2,393,1","acci,39,1","acclaim,58,1","accompanied,51,1,55,1,56,1","accompany,31,1,378,1,383,1,384,1,386,1,388,1,393,1,394,1,395,2","accompanying,383,1","accomplished,19,1","accomplishments,66,2","accord,382,1","according,48,1,181,1,379,1","account,4,1,5,1,20,1,21,2,22,2,25,1,28,1,30,1,36,2,37,1,47,1,43,2,44,1,45,4,53,1,49,1,54,1,55,1,56,2,66,1,380,1,391,1,395,3,397,1","accounted,44,1","accounts,30,1,55,2","accurate,20,1","achieve,29,1,380,1","achieved,26,1,391,1,393,1","achievements,57,2,61,1","acquired,33,1","acreage,21,1","acree,1,1","across,4,1,14,1,22,1,33,1,37,1,54,1,58,1,57,1,59,1,64,1,76,1,392,1","act,54,1,381,1","action,25,1,62,1","actions,397,1","activists,38,1","activities,39,1,52,1,381,1","activity,38,1,52,1,55,1,377,1,390,1","actors,25,1,31,1","actual,34,1","actually,26,1,54,2,64,1,199,1,384,1","acu,65,1","adam,226,1","adams,44,1","adaptation,21,1","add,35,1","addition,16,1,20,1,21,1,25,1,26,1,30,1,48,1,33,1,39,1,41,1,54,1,56,2,57,1,59,1,381,1,390,1,393,1,395,2","address,61,1,66,1,377,1","addresses,151,1","addressing,181,1","adjustment,39,1","administered,52,1","administration,27,1,57,1,241,1","administrative,42,1,163,1","administrators,48,1,62,1,241,1","admirable,49,1,58,1","admire,57,1","admit,76,1","admixtures,48,1","adopt,59,1","adoring,136,1","advance,242,1","advanced,31,1,32,1,44,1,379,1,396,1","advances,51,1,256,1,393,1","advent,390,1","adventurer,391,1","advertise,154,1","advised,4,1,10,1","advocacy,41,1","advocate,38,1,66,1","advocated,39,1","advocates,33,1,54,1","aegis,238,1","aesthetic,56,1","affair,43,1","affairs,30,1","affect,22,1,42,1,52,1,382,1","affected,21,1,29,1,36,1,40,1,383,1,390,1","affecting,16,1","afflicted,380,1","afford,37,1","africa,4,1,5,1,20,9,21,1,28,3,48,4,53,3,54,1,57,1,73,2,379,1","african,4,1,17,2,20,21,27,2,48,17,32,1,36,2,47,2,42,2,53,9,49,1,54,9,55,1,57,1,59,1,60,6,88,1,175,1,232,1,238,1,242,3,379,2,382,1,383,2,384,1,388,1,396,1,397,2,416,1,441,1","africanized,48,1","africans,20,2,57,1,241,1","afro,20,1,25,1,48,1,54,1,238,1,379,1,396,1","aftermath,61,1","afterward,392,1,394,1","afterword,43,1","against,4,7,5,1,6,1,11,1,12,1,13,3,22,1,23,1,36,1,47,2,43,1,45,1,46,1,51,1,58,1,62,4,63,1,66,1,241,1,380,1,381,1,390,1,393,1","age,39,1,58,1,59,1,61,1,62,1,385,1,395,1","agencies,21,1","agenda,46,1","aging,29,1","ago,41,1,54,1","agrarian,23,1,28,1,42,1","agrave,18,1","agreed,26,1","agreement,4,1,14,1,46,2,379,1","agricultural,21,1,33,1,40,1,41,1,56,1,377,1,397,1","agriculture,28,1,54,1,381,1,386,1,390,1,394,1,396,1","agust,63,1","aid,4,1,5,1,30,2,36,1","aida,395,2","aided,64,1","aids,31,3","aimed,32,1,395,1","aims,28,1,36,1,379,2,383,1,384,1,395,1","aires,4,3,12,2,13,1,31,1,33,4,34,1,54,1,133,2,136,1,377,8,378,1,393,1,394,1,396,5,399,1","airport,34,1","alan,50,1,60,1,61,1,393,1","alarm,21,1","alarmingly,31,1","alaska,380,1","alastair,386,1","albany,39,1,42,1","alberto,62,1","albrecht,50,1","albuquerque,48,1,31,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,40,1,41,1,42,1,44,1,50,1,52,3,61,2,62,1,178,1,386,2,387,1,388,1,392,1,393,1","alcaraz,65,1","alchon,31,3","alegr,38,2","alegre,94,1","alegria,38,1","alejo,24,1,60,1","alexander,40,1,378,2","alfred,37,1","alfredo,30,1,393,1","alien,38,1","alike,44,1","alisky,396,1","alive,44,1","allay,235,1","allen,28,1,29,1","allende,4,1,13,1","alleviate,57,1","alliance,4,2,9,1,13,1,20,1,51,3,62,1,391,1,393,2","alliances,40,1","allied,34,1","allies,29,1","allow,26,1,48,1,54,1,55,1,130,1,377,1,378,1,392,1","allowed,4,1,10,1,20,1,34,1,42,1,64,1,380,1,386,1","allowing,382,1","allows,26,1,33,1,40,1,390,1","alluvial,394,1","alma,29,1","almanac,41,1","almost,29,1,38,1,44,1,51,1,61,1,385,1","alone,61,1,62,1","along,4,1,5,1,21,1,22,1,35,1,39,2,41,1,49,1,51,1,61,1,65,1,382,1,383,2,393,2,395,2","alongside,63,1","alonzo,22,1","aloof,390,1","aloud,396,1","already,44,1,55,2,199,1,383,2","alternative,45,1,241,1","alternatives,45,1","although,38,1,54,1,55,1,385,1","altiplano,378,2,410,1","altogether,36,1","altroy,57,2","alvares,4,1,5,1","alvarez,65,1","alvaro,30,1","always,30,2,48,2,34,1,45,1,51,1,59,1,77,1,241,1,380,1,387,2","amaro,62,1,223,1","amaru,4,2,6,1,17,1,42,2,52,1,57,2,62,14,394,1","amazon,21,3,53,1,76,4,378,1,394,1","amazonia,4,1,17,1,21,17,77,1,378,1,379,1,385,1","amazonian,21,5,378,1,379,1,381,1,385,2,394,1,439,1","ambitious,390,1","america,4,6,6,1,10,3,11,2,19,4,20,10,21,1,22,2,23,5,24,4,26,5,27,5,28,10,29,2,30,2,48,1,425,1,430,1,434,1,31,8,32,5,33,1,35,1,36,2,37,6,38,1,39,10,40,9,41,3,47,2,42,4,43,3,45,2,46,4,53,8,49,3,50,3,51,1,54,11,58,2,55,3,56,2,57,2,59,15,60,3,61,1,62,3,63,5,65,6,66,12,67,1,68,1,199,1,238,3,239,1,241,2,242,3,246,1,253,1,258,1,377,2,378,2,379,8,380,3,381,3,382,7,383,2,384,4,385,1,386,9,387,9,388,11,390,3,392,3,391,6,393,4,394,2,395,4,396,1,397,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,523,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","american,1,1,4,8,6,1,11,1,12,4,13,1,14,1,16,3,17,1,19,1,20,3,22,1,23,6,24,6,25,2,26,2,27,1,28,6,30,2,48,2,425,1,434,1,31,2,32,6,33,2,35,2,36,2,37,1,38,2,39,3,40,7,41,9,47,1,43,3,44,1,46,1,53,2,49,2,50,5,51,2,58,3,55,2,59,1,60,2,62,1,63,2,65,9,66,4,94,1,130,1,148,1,238,3,239,1,244,1,246,1,256,1,377,1,378,1,379,6,380,5,381,1,382,5,383,2,386,5,387,3,388,5,390,2,392,5,391,5,393,3,394,1,395,4,396,2,397,2,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,464,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","americano,62,1","americanos,62,1","americans,20,1,29,1,41,1,50,1,54,1,65,7,127,1,232,1,241,2,379,2,384,1","americas,4,1,9,1,23,1,27,1,31,1,36,1,40,2,53,2,54,2,241,1,390,2,392,1,396,1","amku,22,1","among,19,2,20,1,21,1,23,1,24,2,26,2,30,1,430,1,32,1,38,1,40,1,47,1,50,1,52,1,59,1,60,1,62,2,65,1,238,1,239,1,241,1,242,1,379,1,380,1,385,1,390,1,393,1,396,3,439,1,488,1,523,1","amount,395,1","analog,48,1","analyses,51,1","analysis,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,30,1,48,1,31,2,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,2,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,390,1,392,1,391,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","analytical,46,1,381,1","ancestors,41,1","ancestral,48,1","ancient,44,2,57,1,385,1,390,3,392,1","andean,22,1,428,1,38,2,42,1,57,3,62,1,184,1,377,2,378,4,381,1,385,3,394,5,397,2,401,1,437,1,439,1,530,1","anderson,1,1,53,1","andes,22,4,40,1,52,2,57,1,62,2,157,1,238,1,377,1,380,2,381,1,385,2,394,1,397,1,441,1","andrew,21,1,59,1,393,1","andrews,20,2,54,2","angela,151,1","angeles,48,1,66,1","angelica,151,1","angles,55,1","anglo,64,1","angola,20,2","angus,25,1","animal,27,1,33,1","animals,31,1","ann,37,1","anna,4,1,8,1","annexation,384,1,395,1","annexed,395,1","annexes,4,1,10,1","anniversary,196,1","annotated,383,1,393,1","announced,4,2,8,1,10,1","announces,4,2,12,1,13,1","annual,535,1","another,20,1,48,1,35,1,53,1,59,1,62,1,65,1,377,1,379,1,380,1,381,2,385,1,388,1,396,1,397,1,401,1","answer,45,1","antecedents,30,1","antedated,394,1","anthem,47,1","anthology,24,1,36,1,65,2,66,1","anthropological,21,1,48,1,45,1,57,1","anthropologist,38,1","anthropology,21,1,22,1,31,1,37,1","anti,4,2,8,2,57,1,242,1,391,2","antioque,381,1","antislavery,54,1","antonio,45,1,51,1,52,1,169,1","antono,175,1","anyone,35,1,39,1,57,1","anything,56,1,393,1","aparicio,19,1","apart,42,1,55,1,377,1,379,2,396,1","apartment,541,1","apertura,46,1","apogee,23,1,390,1","apolitical,24,1","apologized,26,1","appalachia,383,1","apparently,28,1","appeal,48,1,62,1","appear,30,1,151,1,238,1,241,1,377,1,388,1","appearance,64,2,163,1","appears,63,1,220,1","appendices,28,1,36,1,379,1,382,1,386,2,387,1,388,1,392,1,391,1,396,1,397,1","applications,27,1","applied,27,1,32,1","applies,4,1,12,1","appreciate,57,2,382,1,394,1","approach,16,1,29,1,48,1,38,2,40,1,45,1,54,1,55,1,65,1,395,1,396,1","approaches,381,1,392,1","approaching,19,1,35,1,37,1,39,1,49,1","appropriate,26,1,380,1,391,1","appropriates,4,1,12,1","approximately,377,1","apra,4,1,11,1","aptly,53,1","araucanian,22,3","araucano,22,3","araucanos,17,1,22,4,56,1,380,2","araucaria,85,1","arbenz,4,1,12,1,23,1","arbitration,396,1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rier,393,1","barry,386,3,387,2,388,1,392,1","bartolom,4,2,5,1,9,1","basadre,57,1","base,63,1","baseball,41,1,47,1,383,1,384,1,397,1,455,1","based,3,3,43,1,54,1","bases,381,1","basic,21,1,28,1,37,1,41,1,46,2,51,1,52,1,65,1,239,1,258,1,377,1,378,1,379,2,380,1,381,1,382,2,383,1,384,2,385,1,386,2,387,2,388,2,390,2,392,2,391,2,393,1,394,2,395,2,396,1,397,1","basically,48,1,37,1","basil,20,1,28,1,59,1","basilica,229,2,258,1","basin,60,1,378,1,379,1,381,1,410,1","baskets,377,1","bastide,48,1","bates,21,1","bathers,67,1","batista,4,2,12,2","batlle,19,9","baton,23,1,54,1","battle,4,2,7,1,11,1,41,1,61,1,387,1,394,1","battled,242,1","battles,35,1","battling,396,1","bauer,57,1","bay,4,1,12,1","beach,67,1","beaches,67,1","beacon,48,1,44,1,238,1","bean,65,1","beans,118,1","beard,49,1","bears,211,1","beat,30,1","beating,56,1","beatriz,66,1","beattie,49,1","beautiful,27,1,56,1","beauty,56,1","became,19,1,20,1,25,1,27,1,36,1,40,1,43,2,49,1,50,1,51,1,55,2,62,1,63,1,94,1,238,1,381,1,383,2,386,1,390,2,392,1,393,1","because,19,1,20,2,21,1,22,1,23,1,27,1,28,1,30,1,48,1,31,1,39,2,41,1,46,1,50,1,55,1,57,1,63,1,65,2,66,1,76,1,241,3,383,1,386,1,390,2,396,1","become,21,1,48,2,40,1,47,1,50,1,62,1,64,2,238,1,377,1,378,1,380,1,381,1,383,1,390,2,395,1","becomes,4,7,8,1,9,2,10,1,11,3","becoming,47,1,396,1","beef,4,1,10,1","beezley,22,1,390,1","began,20,1,24,1,28,1,32,1,36,1,51,1,61,1,65,1,142,1,239,1,379,1,380,1,384,2,391,1","begin,4,1,13,1,19,1,25,1,26,1,28,1,30,1,32,1,53,1,52,1,383,1","beginning,4,8,5,1,6,3,8,1,9,1,11,2,20,1,23,1,26,1,29,1,40,1,47,1,52,1,64,1,381,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,393,1,395,1,396,1","beginnings,25,1","begins,4,5,6,1,7,1,10,2,13,1,36,1,202,1,383,1,384,1,395,1,396,1","begun,20,1,25,1,42,1,62,1,65,1","behavior,37,1,59,1,130,1,241,1","behavioral,381,1","belfrage,23,1","belief,44,1,45,1,59,2","beliefs,22,1,48,1","believe,21,1,23,1","believed,130,1","believes,393,1","belize,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","bell,36,1,384,1","bellegarde,36,1","beneath,385,1","benedita,25,3","beneficial,393,1","benefit,54,1,388,1,393,1","benefits,19,2","benin,48,1,178,1","benito,4,1,9,1","benjamin,25,2,65,1","benson,41,1","berg,57,1","bergad,28,2","bergmann,66,1","berkeley,33,2,47,1,45,1,46,1,59,1,66,1,381,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","bernardo,25,2","berta,4,1,10,1","best,20,2,38,1,45,1,54,1,387,1,397,1","bethell,49,1,54,1,377,1,380,1,382,1,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","bethesda,65,1","betrayal,61,1","better,21,1,48,1,39,1,41,1,66,1,160,1,377,1,397,1","between,4,3,6,1,9,1,11,1,19,1,20,2,22,1,24,1,26,2,29,2,30,1,48,1,33,1,35,1,36,3,37,2,39,1,40,1,41,1,42,1,43,2,44,1,46,1,53,1,51,4,55,1,59,1,61,2,66,2,163,1,220,1,380,1,383,1,384,2,388,2,390,1,391,1,394,1,395,4,396,1,397,3,441,1,517,1,541,1","beyond,25,1,39,2,47,1,54,1,377,1,383,1","bg01,286,8","bg02,287,8","biases,384,1","bibliographic,379,1,383,1,390,1","bibliographical,36,2,377,3,378,1,379,5,380,1,381,1,382,2,383,2,384,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,397,1","bibliography,19,2,20,2,21,2,22,2,23,2,24,2,25,2,26,2,27,2,28,2,29,2,30,2,48,2,31,2,32,3,33,2,34,2,35,2,36,3,37,2,38,2,39,2,40,2,41,2,47,2,42,2,43,2,44,2,45,2,46,2,53,2,49,2,50,2,51,2,52,2,54,2,58,2,55,2,56,2,57,2,59,2,60,2,61,3,62,2,63,2,64,2,65,3,66,2,377,3,378,5,379,3,380,2,381,3,382,6,383,4,384,4,385,3,386,6,387,7,388,6,390,5,392,4,391,5,393,5,394,2,395,4,396,4,397,4","biesanz,392,2","big,24,1,29,1,421,8,422,8,423,8,426,8,431,8,432,8,39,1,71,8,72,8,75,8,82,8,83,8,84,8,87,8,90,8,93,8,96,8,99,8,112,8,113,8,114,8,115,8,116,8,117,8,120,8,123,8,126,8,129,8,132,8,135,8,138,8,141,8,146,8,147,8,150,8,153,8,156,8,159,8,162,8,165,8,168,8,171,8,174,8,177,8,180,8,183,8,186,8,189,8,194,8,195,8,198,8,201,8,204,8,207,8,210,8,213,8,216,8,219,8,222,8,225,8,228,8,231,8,234,8,237,8,247,8,248,8,251,8,254,8,259,8,260,8,377,1,380,1,396,1,402,8,403,8,407,8,408,8,411,8,414,8,435,8,442,8,443,8,444,8,447,8,450,8,453,8,458,8,459,8,462,8,467,8,468,8,471,8,476,8,477,8,480,8,483,8,486,8,489,8,492,8,494,8,497,8,500,8,505,8,506,8,509,8,512,8,515,8,518,8,521,8,524,8,527,8,529,8,530,4,533,8,536,8,539,8,542,8,545,8,548,8,551,8","biggest,379,1","bilby,60,1","billions,3,1","bio,22,2","biodiversity,21,6","biographies,29,1,49,1","biography,34,2,53,2,49,2,52,1,58,1,61,1","biology,31,1","biosphere,21,1","birds,4,1,9,1,38,2","birth,396,1","bishop,64,2","bishops,4,1,12,1","bit,387,1","bitter,23,2,30,1,51,1,379,1","black,27,1,48,1,35,2,36,3,42,1,54,2,60,1,100,1,103,1,175,1,196,1,388,1","blacks,53,1","blackwell,28,1,56,1,57,1,59,1","blanchard,42,1","blend,377,1","blended,60,1","blending,20,1,54,1,57,1","blends,34,1","blica,396,1","blinds,163,1","blocked,393,1","blood,1,4,3,4,2,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,5,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,4,28,4,29,4,30,4,48,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,41,4,47,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,46,4,53,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,52,4,54,4,58,4,55,5,56,4,57,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,4,64,4,65,4,66,4,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,4,381,4,382,4,383,4,384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1,105,1,381,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","call,379,1","calle,163,1","called,24,1,48,2,32,1,34,1,39,1,43,2,44,1,53,1,52,1,58,1,62,1,63,1,172,1,196,1,232,1,239,1,378,1,385,1,388,1,390,1,396,1,502,1","calling,62,1","calm,51,1","calvert,387,1","cambranes,28,1","cambridge,19,1,20,3,23,1,24,2,26,1,28,4,31,1,36,1,37,2,42,1,49,2,54,4,55,1,56,2,61,2,64,2,377,2,378,4,379,1,380,3,382,1,383,2,386,1,387,1,388,1,390,3,391,2,396,1","came,19,1,20,1,33,1,65,1,382,1,391,1","campesino,45,1","canada,46,1","canal,4,2,10,1,17,1,26,31,30,1,31,2,40,1,97,1,392,7,391,1,517,1","canala,26,1","canals,26,1","cancer,4,1,12,1","canci,50,5,238,2,380,1","cancion,4,1,17,1","candidate,4,2,12,1,13,1,25,1","candles,191,1","candombe,396,2","candombl,48,7","candomblé,178,1","cane,202,1","cannot,24,1,124,1","canoes,77,1","cantar,50,1","canto,50,1","canudos,4,1,10,1,45,6,169,1","cape,26,1,50,1","capita,3,1","capital,4,1,12,1,23,1,25,1,428,1,42,2,55,1,68,1,163,1,187,1,208,1,377,1,379,1,383,2,385,1,387,1,388,1,390,2,394,4,395,1,396,1,397,2,399,1,410,3,416,1,449,1,455,1,466,1,473,1","capitalism,28,1,380,2","capitalist,45,1,57,1,94,1","capitalize,390,1","capitalizing,397,1","capo,390,1","capped,428,1,410,1","captivity,73,1","captured,4,2,7,1,12,1,56,1","captures,4,1,5,1","capturing,20,1,57,1","car,39,1","carabobo,425,1,434,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","caracas,4,1,12,1,397,2,547,2","carb,381,1","cardenal,43,1,63,1","cardona,65,1","care,31,1","careful,26,1,38,1,41,1,46,1,397,1","carefully,46,1","cargos,20,1","carib,388,1","caribbean,17,1,26,2,28,1,48,1,36,7,40,1,41,1,47,7,53,2,54,2,55,5,56,1,59,1,60,6,65,2,88,1,142,1,241,1,242,1,381,3,382,1,383,7,384,8,386,1,388,6,390,1,391,2,395,8,397,6,464,1","caribs,388,1","carlos,24,2,43,1,51,1,57,2,387,1","carnival,25,1,396,1","caro,395,2","carolina,20,1,28,2,48,2,33,1,36,2,40,2,41,1,47,1,49,1,55,2,383,1,386,1","carolyn,36,1","carpentier,24,1,60,1","carrasco,56,2","carrera,27,1","carreta,65,1","carri,395,2","carried,32,1","carries,229,1","carry,191,1,395,1","cartoon,65,2","casas,4,1,5,1","case,22,1,23,1,28,1,31,1,43,1,54,1,58,1,73,1,386,1,388,1,391,2,392,1,394,1,395,1","cases,36,1,39,1,59,1,383,1,384,1,395,1","cash,397,1","casta,27,3,29,3,102,1","caste,4,1,8,1,17,1,27,10,37,1,45,3,102,1,238,2,239,1,241,2,253,1,390,1","castes,27,1","castro,4,1,12,1,29,9,62,1,65,1,66,1,121,1,383,2,455,1","casts,32,1","casual,377,1","catastrophic,51,1","catches,390,1","categories,27,2","categorize,241,1","categorizing,27,1","cathedral,21,1","catherine,21,1","catholic,48,2,59,4,64,2,178,1,242,3,258,1","catholicism,48,3,59,1","catholics,48,1","cathy,39,1","cattle,420,2,35,3,377,1,381,1,390,1,396,1","cattlemen,21,1","cauca,381,1,439,1","caudillismo,35,2","caudillo,4,2,8,1,9,1,19,2,22,1,35,3,51,1,63,1,388,1","caudillos,4,1,17,1,19,2,35,4,61,1,377,1,382,1,396,1","caufield,21,1","caught,4,1,7,1","caulfield,40,1","cause,58,1,62,1,64,1","caused,386,1","cautionary,36,1","cavalry,22,1","cedric,23,1","celebrate,214,1","celebrated,27,1,30,1,196,1","census,27,1,54,1","centenario,85,1","center,23,1,24,1,48,1,40,1,50,1,60,1,66,2,166,1,220,1,378,1,383,1,385,3,386,2,387,2,388,5,390,3,392,3,394,1,466,1,502,1,541,1","centered,383,1","centering,388,1","centers,39,1,44,1,55,1,384,1,390,1","central,4,1,10,1,19,1,20,2,21,1,23,6,26,5,28,4,29,1,428,1,40,2,41,1,43,1,44,1,46,1,59,1,63,4,65,1,241,1,242,1,380,2,382,12,386,13,387,9,388,11,390,4,391,8,392,6,397,1","centrality,242,1","centre,31,1","centuries,4,1,9,1,33,1,47,1,64,1,238,1,377,1,379,1,386,1,457,1,473,1","century,19,2,21,2,22,4,23,4,24,1,26,3,27,2,28,4,29,1,48,2,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,2,34,1,35,3,36,3,37,2,40,6,41,3,42,2,43,2,45,1,53,3,49,1,50,1,52,3,54,3,58,2,56,1,57,1,59,3,60,5,61,3,62,1,63,1,65,2,66,3,67,1,68,1,73,1,130,2,139,1,217,1,239,1,241,2,242,2,377,4,378,6,379,4,380,7,381,4,382,3,383,5,384,3,385,4,386,3,387,4,388,3,390,7,391,4,392,4,393,3,394,3,395,7,396,8,397,6,464,1,496,1,541,1,547,2","ceremonial,44,1","ceremonies,48,3","certain,27,1,51,1,378,1,381,2,392,1,393,1,395,1","certainly,379,1","césar,511,1","cfm,244,1","chaco,4,1,11,1,393,2","chadburn,380,1","chalked,49,1","challenge,25,1,31,1,37,1,66,1,390,1,395,2","challenged,44,1","challenger,19,1,385,1","challenges,37,1,41,2,47,1,59,1,62,1","challenging,31,1,387,1","champions,4,1,7,1","chance,37,1,46,1","change,27,1,28,2,48,1,35,1,42,1,43,1,59,1,66,2,172,1,239,1,242,1,379,1","changed,19,1,30,1,37,1,42,1,58,1,239,1,386,1,392,1,393,1","changes,34,1,61,1","changing,31,1,45,1,58,1,66,1,379,1","chapel,1,1,20,1,28,2,48,2,33,1,36,1,40,2,41,1,47,2,49,1,55,2,383,1,386,1","chapter,19,1,20,2,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,2,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,48,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,59,1,60,2,61,1,62,2,63,1,64,1,66,1,377,1,380,2,381,2,382,2,384,1,385,1,386,2,387,2,388,2,390,1,391,2,392,2,393,3,395,4,397,1","chapters,20,1,26,1,28,1,29,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,36,2,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,2,54,1,57,1,62,1,378,1,379,1,381,1,382,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,3,391,1,392,2,393,1,395,6,396,4,397,1","character,396,1","characteristic,425,1,434,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","characteristics,36,1,38,1,378,1,379,1,385,1,396,3","characterize,55,1","characterized,19,1,53,1,49,1","characterizes,377,1","charismatic,34,1","charles,1,1,35,1,36,1,41,1,61,1,62,1,65,1,76,1","charlottesville,54,1","charny,62,1","charts,381,1,382,2,386,1,387,1,388,2,391,1,392,2","chasqui,50,1","chasteen,1,1,35,1,76,1","chastity,239,1","chattel,40,1","che,4,1,12,1,29,1,121,1","check,27,1","cherished,64,1","cherry,34,1","chesnut,59,2","chiapas,390,1","chicago,43,1,377,1","chicano,65,2","chicanos,65,1","chichicastenango,488,1","chico,21,2","chief,124,1,178,2,242,1","chiefly,28,1","child,41,1","children,35,1,46,1,160,1,175,1,235,1,504,1","chile,3,3,4,5,7,2,8,1,9,1,13,1,22,7,427,8,428,6,429,8,430,4,431,8,432,8,433,8,434,4,33,2,38,1,39,1,40,1,50,6,66,1,85,1,91,2,242,1,291,8,378,3,380,25,389,1,394,1,396,1,435,8","chilean,4,1,13,1,22,2,430,1,33,1,50,5,85,1,184,1,378,1,380,10","chilena,50,1","chileno,85,1","chocolate,390,1","cholera,31,1","chomsky,23,1","choose,17,1,42,1,240,1,389,1","choosing,65,1","chords,60,1","chosen,56,1","chris,51,1,60,1","christ,45,1","christian,40,1,45,1,59,3","christianity,20,1,48,1,59,2,64,1","christine,394,1","christopher,42,1,58,1","chronic,386,1","chronicle,19,1,42,1","chronicled,22,1","chronicles,30,1","chronological,393,1","chronologically,382,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,2","chronology,377,1,382,4,383,1,386,4,387,5,388,3,391,4,392,3,393,1,394,2,396,1,397,1","church,4,1,9,1,48,1,34,1,59,2,64,1,66,2,242,2,396,1","churches,59,1","cifuentes,151,2","cimarr,53,1","cinema,4,1,12,1","cio,25,1","circles,395,1","circuit,41,1","circum,53,1","circumstances,396,1","circumvent,48,1","ciro,38,1","citadel,36,1","cited,379,1","cities,31,1,33,1,39,2,42,1,44,1,239,1,379,1,388,1,394,1,396,1,399,1,437,1,502,1","citizen,27,1,49,1","citizens,67,1,383,1","citizenship,395,1","city,4,2,10,1,13,1,21,1,428,1,31,1,33,1,38,1,39,2,42,5,44,3,45,1,54,2,56,1,57,1,61,2,64,1,85,1,154,1,229,1,258,1,275,8,377,5,378,2,380,1,383,1,385,1,387,4,390,2,392,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1,410,1,416,1,449,1,455,1,466,1,502,2,535,2,547,1","cityscapes,397,1","ciudad,541,1","civil,19,1,63,3,187,1,386,2,390,1","civilian,4,1,13,1","civilization,4,1,17,1,44,8,56,1,378,1,387,2","civilizations,48,1,394,1","claimed,62,1,396,1","claims,23,1,383,1","clarence,28,1","clarendon,34,1,63,1,386,1","clarity,46,1","claro,28,1","clash,43,1","class,16,1,19,2,28,1,34,1,39,1,40,1,42,5,56,1,57,1,62,2,160,1,387,1,449,1","classes,32,1","classic,33,1,36,2,44,1,53,1,54,1,55,2,217,1","classics,24,1","classroom,54,1,416,1","clear,27,1,48,1,32,1,59,1,377,1,379,1,381,1,390,2,395,2","clearly,42,1,43,1,56,1,64,1,238,1,377,2,380,1,387,1,390,1,391,1,392,1,393,2,397,1,401,1","cleary,59,1","clendinnen,56,1","clergy,59,1,64,2","clerical,242,1","client,391,1","clifford,383,1","climate,21,1,53,1,380,1,381,1,390,1","climatic,380,1","clorinda,4,1,9,1,38,1","close,26,1,63,1,273,8,381,1,383,1,390,1,391,1,393,1","closely,25,1,36,1,52,1,57,1,66,1,394,1","closer,51,1","closest,383,2","cloth,52,1,178,1","clothe,52,1","clothing,23,1,39,1,47,1","cloud,428,1","clout,40,1","club,60,2,217,1","clustered,380,1","co,1,2,36,1,39,2,59,1,63,2,66,2,163,1,377,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,384,2,387,1,391,2,396,1,410,1","coast,20,1,26,1,42,4,53,1,378,1,379,4,381,1,382,1,385,3,386,1,388,4,391,1,394,4,397,1,441,3","coastal,17,1,42,10,55,1,377,1,378,1,385,1,388,1,393,1,394,4,395,1","coastline,380,1,393,1","coatsworth,23,1","cocaine,30,2","cochabamba,378,1","cockcroft,41,1","code,37,5","coercion,52,1","coffee,17,1,28,48,33,3,49,1,54,1,55,1,118,1,379,1,381,1,382,1,386,3,387,1,388,1,395,2,397,2","coffers,26,1","cohesion,44,1","cohesive,47,1","coined,23,1","cold,29,1,59,1,63,1,383,1,387,2","cole,52,2","colin,36,1,377,1,383,1","collaboration,40,2","collapse,383,1","collar,42,1","colleagues,4,1,11,1","collected,49,1","collection,21,1,23,1,26,1,48,2,32,1,33,1,34,1,36,1,39,1,40,2,41,1,43,1,44,2,53,1,51,1,54,1,55,2,57,1,59,1,60,1,65,3,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,383,2,390,2","collections,37,1,44,1","collective,48,1,395,1","collide,25,1","collier,380,2","collins,51,1","colloquial,35,1","colombia,3,3,4,1,6,1,17,1,21,2,23,2,26,2,28,8,30,16,36,1,39,1,54,1,60,1,124,2,379,1,381,28,385,1,389,1,392,3,397,6,436,8,437,5,438,8,439,6,440,8,441,5,442,8,443,8,444,8,445,8,446,4,447,8","colombian,4,2,9,1,11,1,30,4,381,5,392,1","colombians,30,1,381,1","colonial,4,4,6,1,20,4,22,3,26,2,27,9,48,6,31,6,37,8,40,5,42,10,53,3,52,2,54,3,55,4,57,1,60,4,62,7,64,2,65,1,66,2,163,1,238,3,241,3,377,5,378,1,379,6,380,3,381,2,382,2,383,1,384,2,385,1,387,3,388,2,390,1,391,1,392,1,393,3,394,2,395,6,396,1,397,3,437,1,464,1,466,1,541,1,547,1","colonialism,47,1,395,2","colonies,4,1,6,1,21,1,378,1,383,1,384,1,395,1,464,1","colonization,22,1,28,2,31,1,33,3,36,3,44,1,56,1,59,1,64,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,383,1,384,2,388,1,390,1,394,1,395,3","colonized,377,1,386,1","colonizers,242,1,392,1,393,1","colony,61,1,383,1,387,1,393,1,395,2","color,20,1,27,1,56,1,383,1","colorado,56,1,57,1","colors,29,1","colour,36,1","columbia,24,1,30,1,36,1,52,2,292,8,379,1,392,1","columbian,44,1,378,2,382,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,390,1,391,1,392,1","columbus,4,1,5,1,383,1,384,2","com,151,1,244,2","combat,4,1,14,1,31,2,59,1","combating,66,1","combination,26,1,56,1","combinations,27,1","combined,65,1","combines,21,1","combining,32,1","come,39,1,47,1,46,1,54,2,58,1,59,1,65,1,78,1,383,1,384,1,393,1,394,1","comes,27,1,124,1","comfort,67,1","coming,24,1,45,1,59,1","comis,26,1","comisión,85,1","command,381,2","commanded,32,1","commemorating,425,1,434,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","commemoration,196,1","commemorative,26,2","comments,32,1","commercial,163,1","commercially,383,1","commission,21,1","commissioned,27,1","committed,24,1,57,1","commodities,55,1","commodity,28,2","common,425,1,434,1,53,1,52,1,246,1,388,1,390,1,391,1,397,2,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","commonality,397,1","commonly,23,1,27,1,133,1,390,1","commonwealth,395,1","communication,394,1","communications,57,1","communism,43,1,383,1","communist,29,1,383,1","communities,21,2,47,1,45,1,53,3,64,1,65,1,387,1","community,41,2,47,1,53,1,62,1,65,3,393,1,535,1","compa,29,1,66,1","compact,29,1,466,1","compactness,380,1","companies,4,2,10,2,23,4,39,1,88,1,388,1","company,1,1,20,1,23,7,64,1,88,1,392,1","comparable,49,1,379,1,441,1","comparative,48,1,32,1,33,1,36,1,40,2,54,1,64,1,381,1,383,1,384,1,395,1","comparatively,397,1","compare,28,2,33,1,41,2,44,1,45,1,54,2,58,1,55,1,56,1,381,1,387,1,390,1,393,1,396,1","compared,42,1,51,2,66,1,379,1,382,1","comparison,51,1,380,1","comparisons,33,1,61,1","compelling,25,1,37,1","competed,61,1,391,1","competition,28,1,39,1,124,1,384,1","compilation,58,1","compiled,3,1,65,1","complement,29,1,379,1,390,2,397,1","complemented,56,1","complete,26,1,27,1,28,2,31,1,42,1,43,1,53,1,50,1,62,1,64,1,378,1,379,1,385,1,387,1,397,1","completely,394,1","completion,4,1,5,1,214,1","complex,20,1,21,1,27,1,48,1,42,1,53,1,56,1,387,1","complexities,57,1","complexly,390,1","compose,377,1,390,1","composed,44,1,49,1,387,1","compositions,65,1","comprehensive,53,1,54,1,384,1,393,1","comprise,41,1","comprised,381,1","compulsory,52,1","comunero,4,1,6,1","conceived,37,1","concentrate,23,1,29,1,40,1,380,1,393,1","concentrated,393,1","concentrates,36,1,383,1,386,1,396,1","concentrating,4,1,5,1,16,1,21,1,26,1,39,1","concepci,380,1","conceptions,32,1,44,1","concepts,380,1","concern,21,1","concerned,391,1","concerning,32,1,46,1,60,1","concerns,21,1,46,1","concert,184,1","concise,20,1,22,1,25,2,26,1,27,1,29,1,48,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,52,1,54,1,60,2,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,390,2,392,1,394,1,397,1","concisely,58,1","conclusion,31,1,381,1,395,2","condensed,396,1","condition,65,1,66,1","conditions,39,1,45,1,55,2,62,1,382,1","conduct,226,1","conducted,384,1","cone,22,1,33,3,59,1,396,1","confederation,4,1,8,1,381,1","conference,4,1,12,1","confines,25,1","conflict,21,1,40,1,51,1,55,1,59,1,62,2,63,1,380,1,385,1,387,1,393,1,395,2","conflictive,19,1,381,1","conflicts,390,1,392,1,393,1","confluence,60,1","confounded,241,1","conglomeration,52,1","congo,20,1","congregations,59,1","congress,392,1,395,1","conmemorativa,26,1","connaughton,65,1","connected,25,1,48,1,52,1,60,1,390,1,394,1","connection,35,1,39,1,45,1","connections,20,3,32,1,43,1,44,1,59,1","connects,387,1","conquered,4,1,5,1,17,1,47,1,60,1,238,1,383,1","conquerors,40,2,387,1","conquest,21,1,28,1,42,1,62,1,388,3,390,1,392,1,394,1","conquistador,44,1","conquistadors,44,1,65,1","conrad,43,1,54,2","conscientious,58,1","conscious,32,1","consciousness,196,1,383,1","conselheiro,45,1,169,1","consequences,23,1,28,2,30,1,41,1,42,1,50,1,51,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,383,1,384,2,386,1,393,1","conservative,385,1,386,1,390,1","conservatives,242,1","consider,20,1,24,1,37,2,46,1,49,1,57,1,62,1,64,1,65,1,384,1","considerable,25,1,46,1,381,1,384,1,391,1","consideration,30,1,46,2","considerations,48,1","considered,25,1,35,1,51,1,66,1","consists,393,1","consolidation,380,1","conspiracy,4,1,8,1,55,1","constant,391,1","constitute,22,1,48,1,38,1,47,1,42,1,54,1,59,1,232,1,378,1,397,1,439,1","constituted,26,1,32,2,50,1,380,1","constitutes,63,1,77,1,238,1,381,1,390,1","constitution,4,1,11,1,541,1","constitutionalist,61,1","construct,31,1","constructed,47,1,42,1,391,1,457,1","constructing,47,1,65,1","construction,21,1,22,1,26,5,27,1,30,1,51,1,56,1,97,1,464,1,547,1","consult,55,1,377,1,397,1","consulted,27,1","consumed,139,1","consumers,30,1,55,2","contact,20,1,48,1,54,1,57,1","contacts,393,1","contained,44,1","contains,24,1,48,3,58,1,56,1,57,1,377,1,393,1","contemporary,25,1,30,1,35,1,39,1,59,1,60,1,65,4,160,1,380,1,382,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,393,1,396,1,397,1","content,1,1","contention,28,1,40,1,51,1","contestado,45,2","contesting,29,2","context,20,1,22,1,24,2,25,1,26,2,36,1,39,1,43,1,45,1,50,1,51,1,55,1,56,1,61,1,62,2,63,1,383,1,384,2,391,1,395,1","continent,42,1,51,1,58,1,62,1,379,1,380,1,393,2,394,1","continents,253,1,392,1","continued,47,1,44,1,51,1,52,1,64,1,383,1,390,1,394,1,397,1","continues,242,1","continuing,65,1","continuities,65,2","continuum,60,1","contours,21,1,34,1,40,1","contra,391,1","contrapunto,39,1","contras,4,1,13,1","contrast,29,1,47,2,42,1,53,1,49,1,58,1,377,2,379,2,390,1","contrasted,38,1,49,1,379,1","contrasting,38,1,59,1","contrasts,377,1,379,1,385,1","contribute,66,1","contributed,381,1,496,1","contributes,21,1","contributions,41,1","control,4,1,6,1,25,1,26,2,36,1,40,1,47,1,61,1,62,1,124,1,378,2,381,2,391,1,393,1,394,1,395,1","controlled,241,1,378,1,394,1","controversial,34,1,38,1,393,1","convened,392,1","convenient,43,1","conventillo,133,2","conversations,22,1","conversion,64,1","converted,20,1","conveyed,390,1","conway,42,1,58,1","cooks,160,1","cool,390,1","cooperate,30,1","copy,3,1,2,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,48,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","copyright,3,1,2,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,48,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","corbridge,56,1","core,381,1","corinth,392,1","corn,390,1","cornell,32,1,33,1","cornwall,395,2","corollary,4,1,10,1","corporations,21,1,23,1","correspond,378,1","correspondence,33,1","cort,24,4,56,1,65,1","cortázar,91,1","cortés,205,2","cosmopolitan,239,1,377,1","cosmos,44,1","cost,30,1,37,1,41,1,160,1,388,2","costa,3,3,23,2,28,3,49,1,88,1,118,1,382,16,387,1,389,1,449,1","costarica,293,8,382,4,448,8,449,4,450,8,451,8,452,4,453,8","costas,395,2","coste,381,1","costs,172,1","costume,504,1","could,19,1,22,1,23,1,29,1,31,2,32,1,35,2,37,2,39,1,42,1,49,1,50,1,55,1,59,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,76,1,241,1,393,1,397,1","counterparts,33,1,42,1,239,1","counterpoint,36,1","countries,16,2,19,1,20,1,23,4,28,2,31,1,32,2,33,1,40,2,47,1,51,2,65,1,256,1,378,1,379,2,380,2,382,1,383,1,384,1,386,3,388,2,391,1,392,1,396,1,397,1","country,4,1,16,1,17,1,19,5,23,1,25,1,28,1,420,1,30,1,32,1,34,1,35,4,36,1,40,2,41,2,47,1,42,1,51,2,54,1,61,1,65,1,67,1,68,1,124,1,282,8,294,8,377,4,378,3,379,4,380,4,381,11,382,7,383,3,384,3,385,5,386,5,387,5,388,5,389,6,391,4,390,3,392,3,393,4,394,2,395,1,396,5,397,3,439,1,441,1,496,1,502,1","countryside,40,1,61,1,239,1,381,1,386,1,387,1,396,1","county,28,1,437,1","coup,4,2,13,2,23,2,49,1,91,1,380,2","couple,387,1","coupled,31,1,380,1","course,29,1,30,2,31,2,35,1,40,1,58,1,66,1,239,1,379,1,390,1,393,1","court,56,1,410,1","courts,44,1","courtyard,133,1","cousins,33,2","cover,420,1,388,2,391,1","covers,385,1","cow,35,1","cowboys,35,4,397,1","coyote,27,1,105,3","craft,21,1","crafted,24,1","crafting,44,1","crash,4,1,11,1","crassweller,34,1","crawley,391,1","create,47,1,55,1,382,1,392,1,395,1","created,4,2,6,1,14,1,19,2,26,1,39,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,381,2,396,1","creating,73,1,394,1,397,1","creation,4,2,12,1,13,1,19,1,26,1,34,1,62,1,394,1","creations,60,1,377,1","creative,390,1","creativity,238,1","creator,19,1","credits,1,5,3,1,2,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,48,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","creole,54,1,394,1","creoles,42,1","crews,52,1","criminal,130,2","criminals,130,2","criollo,42,2","cripps,395,2","crises,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","crisis,4,2,12,1,14,1,17,1,26,1,30,4,45,2,63,4,377,1,381,1,386,1","critical,39,1","critique,34,1","crook,48,1","crop,28,3,383,1,395,2,397,1","crops,28,1,33,1,54,1","croquis,377,1","cross,45,1,378,1","crosscurrents,380,1","crosses,27,1,160,1","crossing,33,2,392,1","crossings,41,1","crossroads,36,1,392,2,396,1","crowd,34,1,136,1","crowded,21,1,229,1,466,1,547,1","crowds,4,1,12,1,32,1","crown,4,2,5,1,8,1,40,2,43,1,65,1","crowned,4,1,6,1","crucible,4,2,6,1,20,1,22,1,27,1,48,1,31,1,37,1,40,1,42,1,53,1,52,1,54,1,55,1,60,1,62,1,64,1,384,1","cruelty,392,1","cruz,378,1","ct,26,1,29,1,32,1,40,4,47,1,53,1,51,1,54,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,62,1,63,1,65,1,377,1,379,1,380,1,383,1,390,1","ctor,39,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","cuba,3,3,4,6,8,1,9,2,10,1,12,2,28,1,29,5,48,4,32,1,36,1,40,1,47,3,43,1,53,2,50,1,54,4,55,5,60,4,202,1,242,2,295,8,379,1,383,29,384,1,389,1,395,3,397,1,454,8,455,4,456,8,457,4,458,8,459,8,460,8,461,4,462,8","cuban,4,2,12,1,17,1,29,14,48,1,47,2,43,1,55,1,60,13,61,2,66,1,121,1,175,1,217,1,238,1,383,7,455,1,457,1","cubana,60,1","cubaness,383,1","cubans,47,1,175,1,383,1,457,1","cuisine,47,1,381,1,390,1,399,1","culinary,395,1","culminating,391,1","cult,58,1","cultivate,28,1","cultivated,28,1,51,1,58,1,55,1","cultivation,4,1,5,1,28,8,58,1,55,4,386,1","cults,242,1","cultural,22,1,36,1,41,1,42,2,44,1,45,1,49,1,65,2,73,1,105,1,238,1,377,3,378,1,379,4,388,1,394,2,395,5,396,1,397,1,399,1,502,1","culturally,20,1,377,1,379,2","culture,20,2,22,1,48,2,38,1,39,1,47,2,42,1,44,5,45,1,50,2,52,1,55,1,65,1,66,2,238,1,379,2,383,2,393,1,395,3,396,3,523,1","cultures,20,1,38,1,54,1,57,1","cumberland,61,1","curbstone,53,1,63,1","curious,393,1","currency,211,1","current,17,1,21,1,25,1,30,1,33,1,41,1,381,1,388,1,392,1,395,1,397,1","currently,30,2,379,1,384,1","currents,59,1,60,2,396,1","currey,40,1","curtin,54,1","cushner,42,2","customs,20,1,393,1","cut,21,2","cutting,21,2","cuzco,57,2,62,2,208,1,394,1","da,21,1,25,3,49,1,390,1","daily,21,1,46,1,56,2,57,2,65,1,77,1,139,1,226,1","dalton,63,2","dam,21,1","damper,36,1","dance,20,1,384,1","dancers,504,1","dancing,29,1,377,1","dangerous,29,1","daniel,41,1,59,1,62,1,65,1,377,1","dare,76,2","dari,54,1","dark,77,1","dash,36,1","data,3,3,54,2","database,3,2","date,379,1,385,1,394,1","dated,22,1,28,1,48,1,33,1,42,1,44,1,53,1,61,1,65,1,378,1,387,1,392,2,393,1,395,2,396,1,397,1","dates,47,1,386,1","dating,23,1","daughter,151,1","dav,56,2","david,23,1,26,1,36,2,46,1,54,3,58,2,59,3,63,1,178,1,377,1,381,1,386,1,392,1","davidson,20,2","davies,57,2,60,1","davis,54,1","dawn,41,1,382,1,386,1,387,2,388,1,391,1,392,1","day,39,5,59,1,62,1,154,1,191,1,196,2,379,1,387,1,393,1,394,1,535,1","daylight,202,1","days,39,1,40,1,379,1","dc,21,1,39,1,390,1","dead,48,1","deadly,127,1","deal,380,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,396,1","dealing,28,1,382,1,388,1","deals,45,1,51,1,377,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,2,391,1,396,1,397,1","dealt,22,1,393,1","dean,28,1","death,22,1,29,1,30,2,44,1,54,1,62,1,196,1,387,1","deathbed,34,1","debate,21,1,28,1,33,1,39,1,41,1,54,1","debates,21,2,33,1,46,1,54,1","deborah,60,1","debts,4,1,15,1","decade,4,2,12,1,13,1,34,1,383,1","decades,4,1,5,1,30,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,384,1,385,1,391,1,390,1,393,1","december,4,1,12,1,67,1","decidedly,390,1","decimated,26,1,31,3,127,1,383,1,384,1","decimating,4,1,5,1","decisive,25,1,47,1","declaration,4,1,12,1","declare,4,1,7,1","declares,4,6,6,1,7,3,10,1,13,1","decline,19,1,21,1,32,1,44,1,57,2,199,1,388,1,394,1","declined,54,1","declining,25,1,52,1,380,1","dedicate,44,1","dedicated,151,1","deena,65,1","deep,40,2,55,1,388,2,391,1","deeply,48,1,390,1","defaults,4,1,15,1","defeat,4,1,7,1,19,1","defeated,4,1,9,1,19,1","defeats,4,1,11,1","defenses,127,1","defiant,391,1","defined,36,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,68,1","defining,27,1,47,1,46,1","definite,58,1","definitely,36,1,68,1","defreitas,41,1","degeneration,241,1","degradation,21,1","degrading,56,1","degree,391,1","deities,48,2,178,1","deity,64,1","del,26,3,396,1","deleterious,21,1","delicate,56,1","delight,56,1","dellplain,388,1","demand,4,1,12,1,41,1","democracy,25,3,28,1,66,1,382,1,396,4","democratically,23,1","democratization,25,1","demographic,54,1,55,1,385,1,388,1,393,1,396,1","demographics,31,2,63,1,381,1","demonstrate,32,1,378,1,397,1","demonstrates,56,1","demonstrating,235,1","dengue,31,1","denigrated,27,1","denis,395,2","denise,60,1","denominations,59,1","dense,48,1,428,1,43,1,378,1,387,1,393,1","densely,42,1,44,1,386,1,390,2","denser,53,1","dentzel,105,1","department,439,1","departure,26,1","depend,47,1","depended,52,1","dependency,52,1","depicting,238,1","depicts,73,1","deposits,385,1","depression,4,1,11,1","depth,29,1,65,1,377,1,393,1","derive,253,1","descendents,377,1","descent,20,2,32,1,54,4,57,1,62,1,64,1,65,4,88,1,175,1,382,2,388,1,397,1,416,1,441,1,482,1","describe,26,1,37,1,52,1,56,1,384,1,396,1","described,48,1,387,1","describes,38,1","description,380,1","descriptions,21,1","desert,380,1,394,1","deserves,30,1","deserving,30,1","designated,60,1","designed,58,1,57,1,397,1","desired,38,1","desmangles,48,1","desolate,393,1","despite,16,1,26,1,38,1,44,1,49,1,59,1,241,1,380,1,384,1,387,1,395,2,396,1","dessalines,36,1","destined,25,1","destiny,21,1","destroyed,45,1","destroys,4,1,10,1","destruction,4,2,5,2,21,4,54,1,78,1,383,1,384,1,387,1","detail,54,1,390,1","detailed,33,1,36,1,45,1,46,1,51,1,55,1,61,1,63,1,377,1,379,1,383,1,384,1,387,1,390,1,394,1","details,21,1,40,1,378,1","deterioration,29,1,399,1","determined,41,1,387,1","detroit,41,1,53,1","devastating,379,1,393,1","develop,47,1,55,1,56,1","developed,47,1,55,2,56,1,377,1,379,1,383,2,395,1,397,1","developing,21,1,44,1,396,1","development,3,2,21,4,25,1,28,2,42,2,53,1,50,1,54,1,57,1,66,1,379,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,390,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,496,1","developmental,21,1","developments,377,1,378,3,379,1,396,1","devil,387,1","devotes,378,1,384,1,396,1","devotion,64,3,238,1","devotional,258,1","devout,48,1","diacon,21,1,45,1","dialect,47,1","diamond,31,2","diaries,29,1","diary,42,1,384,1","diaspora,20,1,48,1,73,1","diaz,390,1","dicks,50,1","dictator,29,1,35,1,384,1","dictatorial,4,1,11,1,51,2","dictators,23,1,391,1","dictatorship,4,1,11,1,34,1,380,1,382,1,390,1,396,3","dictatorships,393,1","dictionary,393,1","did,20,4,21,1,22,3,23,1,26,1,27,1,29,1,48,4,30,1,31,2,33,1,34,4,35,3,36,1,37,2,40,3,41,1,47,3,42,1,43,5,44,3,45,1,53,1,49,1,50,2,51,1,52,3,54,3,58,3,55,2,56,4,57,3,59,1,60,2,63,3,64,4,65,1,66,1,76,3,238,2,239,2,242,1,377,1,379,3,380,1,382,2,383,3,384,2,385,1,387,2,390,2,392,2,393,1,396,1,397,2","didot,163,1","die,51,1,391,1","died,49,1","diego,64,2,191,1","dies,4,1,12,1","differ,20,1,22,1,48,1,33,1,46,2,53,1,57,1,59,1,383,1,384,1","difference,30,1","differences,27,2,42,1,65,1,66,1,383,1,390,1","different,27,4,28,2,30,1,32,1,37,1,39,2,41,1,47,1,42,1,46,1,53,1,51,1,54,2,60,2,63,1,66,1,379,1,382,2,390,1,392,1,504,1","differentiated,37,1","differently,56,1,381,1,385,1,397,1","differing,381,1","difficult,24,1,66,1,384,1","difficulties,26,1","dimensions,381,1","diminished,21,1","dimmed,57,1,399,1","dimming,380,1","dinosaurs,390,1","diploma,32,1","diplomacy,4,1,8,1,379,2","diplomat,384,1","diplomatic,383,1","diplomatically,383,1","direct,20,1,48,1,43,1,53,1,51,1,58,1","directed,30,1,393,1","directly,48,1,34,1","director,1,1","dirty,4,3,13,1,17,1,34,3,50,1,61,1,377,1,382,1,396,1","disadvantages,39,1","disappearance,30,1","disappeared,397,1","disappointment,58,1","discourse,523,1","discover,61,1","discovered,238,1","discovers,26,1","discovery,65,1","discrimination,241,1","discuss,46,1,61,1","discussed,66,1","discusses,379,1","discussion,61,1,396,1","discussions,33,1","disease,17,1,26,3,31,13,56,1,394,1","diseases,4,1,5,1,31,5,127,2","disintegration,57,1","dismemberment,62,1","disparage,23,1","display,32,1,38,1,379,1","displayed,32,1","distances,395,1","distant,26,1,397,1","distinct,42,1,65,1,241,1,385,1","distinctions,24,1","distinctive,163,1,238,1,242,1,380,1,388,1,395,1,504,1","distinguish,378,1","distribution,57,1,382,1","district,455,1,464,1","diverse,21,1","diversity,27,1,65,1,73,1,381,1","divide,65,2,380,1,381,1,385,1","divided,30,1,34,1,36,1,381,2,382,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,392,1,396,1,457,1","divides,383,1","divine,48,1,178,1,410,1","divinities,48,1","division,3,1,381,1,384,1","divisions,25,1,28,1,381,2","dobyns,394,1","doctor,4,1,8,1,51,1","doctrine,4,2,8,1,10,1,43,1","doctrines,32,2,36,1,241,2","document,18,4,34,1,384,1","documentary,384,1,395,3","documented,66,1,381,1","documents,130,1,395,4","doesn,59,1","doing,23,1","dollar,30,1","dom,3,2,49,3","domestic,54,1","domestication,390,1","dominance,65,1,66,1,239,1","dominant,42,1,55,1,65,1,238,1,384,1","dominate,385,2,387,1","dominated,19,1,36,1,37,1,384,1,395,1","domination,36,1","domingo,4,1,8,1,36,1,464,1,466,1","domingue,36,1,143,1","dominican,3,1,4,1,10,1,28,2,31,2,36,4,41,2,47,5,53,1,60,5,296,8,384,16,388,1,389,1,395,1,397,1,466,1","dominicanrepublic,384,4,463,8,464,4,465,8,466,4,467,8,468,8,469,8,470,4,471,8","dominicans,384,2","donald,34,1,43,1","donoso,24,2","doors,51,1","dos,25,1","dosal,23,2","dot,394,1","dot1,276,8","dot2,277,8","double,37,1","doubleday,64,1","doubt,379,1","doughty,394,1","dovetailed,30,1","down,21,1,49,1,378,1,379,1,385,1,387,1,455,1","downplaying,66,1","downtown,430,1,68,1","dozen,381,1","draft,51,1,52,1","drafted,4,1,11,1","drafts,387,1","draw,379,1,390,1","drawn,383,1,385,1","draws,377,1,381,1","dread,241,1","dream,397,1","dreams,392,1","dressed,181,1","drew,88,1","dried,118,1","drill,226,2","drink,28,1,139,1","drinks,28,1","drive,32,1,36,1,39,1","driven,24,1,60,1,397,1","driving,53,1","dropped,61,1","droughts,379,1","drove,55,1,380,1","drug,30,4,381,2","drugs,30,2","drum,184,1","dry,380,1","dualisms,377,1","duality,377,2","dubbed,29,1,42,1","dudley,30,2","due,50,1","duels,35,1","duke,21,1,23,2,26,1,32,1,35,1,45,2,49,1,54,1,60,1,62,2,66,2,130,1","dumond,45,2","dunes,394,1","dunnington,64,1","dur,60,1","durable,29,1,49,1,384,1","durham,21,1,23,2,26,1,32,1,35,1,45,2,49,1,54,1,60,1,62,2,66,2,130,1","during,19,1,20,1,22,4,24,1,26,2,28,2,48,2,30,1,31,3,32,1,33,2,34,1,35,2,36,1,37,2,38,2,39,2,40,2,42,4,44,1,45,1,46,1,50,3,51,1,52,1,54,3,55,3,57,1,59,1,60,1,62,5,63,3,64,2,66,1,67,1,136,1,238,1,377,2,378,1,381,1,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,2,391,2,390,1,392,1,395,3,396,2,511,1","dutch,55,1","duvalier,36,1","duz,30,1","dwellers,439,1","dwelling,394,1","dwellings,457,1","dylan,50,1","dynamic,386,1,388,1","dynamics,40,1","dynamo,242,1","eacute,4,2,5,1,9,1,18,1,19,3,24,2,28,1,29,4,48,7,33,2,34,1,38,1,41,1,47,2,43,4,44,1,51,1,54,1,58,1,55,2,56,1,57,2,60,1,61,1,65,1,66,1,382,4,383,1,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,3,393,1,394,2,395,2","eager,392,1,397,1","eagle,391,1","earl,390,1","earlier,31,1,47,1,44,1,60,1,396,1","earliest,20,1,393,1","early,19,2,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,2,26,1,28,2,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,2,36,1,42,1,44,2,49,2,50,2,54,1,60,3,63,1,67,1,130,1,139,1,148,1,377,2,380,2,381,3,383,3,384,1,387,2,388,1,391,1,393,1,394,1,396,2,397,1,464,1","earth,25,1,56,1,380,1","earthquakes,208,1","easier,57,1","easily,62,1,378,1,393,1","east,4,1,5,1,28,1,378,2,383,1,385,1,393,1,396,1","eastern,378,1,383,3,385,1,394,2","easy,38,1,54,1,57,1,390,1","eat,52,2","eaten,56,1","ecirc,18,1","eclipsed,52,1,377,1,394,1","eco,382,2","ecological,21,1","ecology,21,2,26,1","economic,4,2,14,2,25,2,28,1,430,1,30,1,36,1,39,4,40,1,41,1,42,1,46,2,52,1,55,3,377,3,378,2,379,2,380,5,385,2,386,1,388,1,391,1,390,2,396,2,397,2,399,1,496,1,502,1","economically,19,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,386,1,395,1","economics,28,1,48,1,39,1,42,1,54,1,377,2,378,1,379,1,382,1,384,1,388,1,392,1,394,1","economies,28,2,39,2,52,1,54,1","economy,17,1,28,3,33,1,39,11,40,2,42,1,55,3,62,1,65,1,154,1,378,1,379,5,380,1,381,1,382,2,384,1,386,1,393,2,394,1,396,1","ecuador,3,3,21,2,23,1,26,1,31,1,38,1,39,2,57,1,151,1,297,8,378,2,382,1,385,19,389,1,394,1,472,8,473,5,474,8,475,4,476,8,477,8,478,8,479,4,480,8","ecuadorian,385,3","ecuadorians,214,1,475,1","eda,29,3","edelberto,387,1","edelman,382,1","edgar,43,1,54,1","edge,4,2,17,1,30,1,31,1,49,1,51,1,378,1,385,1,393,1,464,1","edges,22,1","edici,26,1","ediciones,26,1","edited,48,1,33,1,36,1,42,2,43,1,53,1,54,2,58,1,60,1,377,1,380,2","edith,30,1,66,1","edition,1,4,3,4,2,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,4,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,5,27,4,28,4,29,4,48,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,41,4,47,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,46,4,53,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,52,4,54,4,58,4,55,4,56,5,57,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,4,64,4,65,4,66,4,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,4,381,4,382,4,383,4,384,4,385,4,386,4,387,4,388,4,389,4,391,4,390,4,392,4,393,4,394,4,395,4,396,4,397,4","editorial,380,1,382,1","editors,1,1,384,1","eds,22,1,23,1,24,1,26,1,27,1,28,2,48,1,33,2,34,1,36,2,37,1,39,2,40,1,41,1,51,1,54,2,56,1,59,3,65,3,66,1,382,1,383,1,390,1,395,2","eduardo,23,1,33,1,56,1,381,1,391,1,390,1","educated,35,1,239,2,241,1","education,4,1,11,1,66,2,386,1,387,1,388,1,392,2,396,4","educational,396,1","edward,20,1,59,1","edwin,397,1","effacing,58,1","effect,23,1,41,1,57,1","effective,388,1","effectively,377,1","effectiveness,66,2","effects,21,1,31,1,46,1,54,1","effort,392,2,396,1","efforts,40,1,53,1,59,1,66,3,388,1","egrave,18,1,36,1","eight,16,1,191,1","eighteenth,27,1,62,1,383,1,473,1","eighth,191,1,379,1","eighty,49,1,397,1","ejército,124,1","elaborate,44,1","elaborated,381,1","eldon,40,2","elect,65,1","elected,4,2,12,1,13,1,23,1","election,4,5,11,1,12,1,13,1,15,2,25,1","elections,4,2,13,2","electoral,25,1","electric,60,1","electrician,154,1","electronics,172,1","element,163,1","elements,48,2,39,1,51,1","elena,395,2","eliminated,39,1,382,1","elimination,46,1","elisa,51,1","elisabeth,105,1","elite,238,1","elites,28,1,32,1,38,1,54,1,394,1","elitist,25,1","ellis,33,1","elm,50,1","eln,124,1","eloy,34,2","elsalvador,386,4,481,8,482,4,483,8,484,8,485,4,486,8","elsewhere,21,1,172,1,377,1,393,1,395,1,396,1","eltis,54,1","email,151,1","emancipating,66,1","embargo,4,1,12,1,383,1","embellishments,178,1","embodied,48,1,57,1","embrace,62,1","embraced,184,1","embraces,4,1,12,1","emended,38,1","emerged,20,1,31,1,34,1,50,1,54,1,57,1,59,1","emergence,39,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,63,1,65,1,384,1,391,1","emigrate,33,1,386,1","emilia,49,1","emiliano,61,1","emilie,66,1","emilio,21,1,39,1","emir,25,1","emitted,32,1","emmisaries,205,1","emotive,58,1","emperor,4,1,9,1,49,2","emperors,26,2,49,3,390,1","emphasis,377,2,378,1,393,1,394,1,395,1","emphasize,66,1","emphasizes,36,1","emphasizing,59,1,62,1","empire,4,3,5,1,17,2,31,1,41,1,42,1,44,3,49,8,58,1,56,7,57,13,62,1,242,1,378,2,385,4,387,1,390,2,394,2","empires,44,2,55,1","empirical,46,1","employed,56,1,202,1","employees,23,1","empower,66,1","emulation,47,1","encased,163,1","enchanted,395,1","encomienda,4,1,5,1","encomiendas,4,1,5,1,40,1","encounter,4,2,5,1,20,1,22,4,48,1,31,1,40,1,42,1,44,5,54,1,55,1,56,1,59,1,64,1,65,1,238,1,239,1,380,1,383,1,384,2,390,1,395,2","encouraged,64,1","encroachment,388,1","encyclopedia,65,1","end,4,2,13,2,19,1,22,1,27,1,28,1,48,1,428,1,35,2,45,4,51,1,54,2,65,1,66,1,379,1,380,3,381,2,382,1,383,3,386,1,387,2,388,1,391,1,393,2,395,1","endangered,21,1","ended,49,1,56,1,61,1,380,1","ending,44,1,54,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","endless,241,1","ends,4,1,9,1,390,1","endured,65,1,393,1","enduring,40,1","enemies,383,2","enemy,56,1","engaged,21,1,44,1","engagement,425,1,434,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","engaging,22,1,23,1,24,1,26,1,48,1,30,1,31,1,34,1,39,1,43,1,53,1,52,1,58,1,55,1,65,1,390,1,395,1","engerman,54,1","engineer,26,1","engineering,26,1,29,1,57,1","england,4,3,6,1,8,1,9,1,19,1,34,1,386,1","english,25,1,28,1,33,1,37,1,42,1,43,2,44,3,53,2,49,1,50,2,57,1,59,1,62,1,63,1,181,1,379,1,380,1,382,1,384,2,385,2,386,2,387,1,388,1,391,3,390,2,392,1,393,4,396,1","engraving,85,1,148,1","engrossing,38,1","enigmas,34,1","enigmatic,56,1","enjoy,22,1,53,1,65,1,395,1","enjoyable,21,1","enjoyed,60,1,67,1","enl,34,1,65,1,395,2","enlg,20,1,23,1","enlgd,393,1","enlivened,383,1","enormous,20,1,26,1,52,2","enormously,28,1","enough,32,1,63,1,388,1,393,1","enriches,386,1","enrique,34,1,52,1,386,1","enslaved,20,1,54,1,73,1","entailed,32,1","enter,383,1,397,1","entered,29,1,43,1","enterprises,23,1,390,1","enters,48,1","entertaining,392,1","entire,46,1,56,1,62,1,377,1,381,1,394,2,397,1","entirely,56,1,191,1","entrenched,390,1","entrepreneurship,52,1","entries,60,1,393,2","entry,32,1,121,1","environment,21,1","environmental,21,2,23,1,386,1","environments,21,1,31,2","envisioned,45,1,392,1","envy,19,1","epic,390,1","epidemic,31,1,127,1","epidemics,31,2","epidemiology,31,1","epochs,63,1","equal,385,1","equally,30,1","equatorial,20,1","equivalent,53,1","eradicate,44,1","eras,66,1","ercilla,22,1","erected,208,1","ernest,61,1","ernesto,43,1,384,1","ero,29,1","errant,393,1","erroneous,32,1","errors,58,1","escalera,55,1","escape,387,1","escaped,53,2","esclavo,53,1","espańol,101,2,103,2,104,2","especial,26,1","especially,19,1,22,1,29,1,31,1,33,2,34,1,42,1,46,1,51,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,238,1,239,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,381,1,383,1,387,1,388,3,394,2,396,1,397,2","essay,36,2,65,1,377,2,378,1,379,4,380,1,381,2,382,2,383,4,384,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,3,393,1,394,1,395,1,397,1","essays,23,1,28,1,48,1,32,1,33,1,36,1,37,2,39,3,40,2,41,1,43,1,44,1,53,1,49,2,51,1,54,2,55,1,56,1,57,2,59,1,60,1,65,1,178,1,377,2,380,2,383,2,390,1,396,1","essence,30,1,38,1","essential,46,1","establish,4,2,7,1,13,1,37,1,61,1,66,1,380,1","established,21,1,25,1,27,1,35,1,42,1,59,1,393,1","establishing,381,1","estado,4,1,11,1","estates,35,1,42,2,382,1","esteban,53,1","estelle,62,1","esther,29,1","estuary,67,1","ethel,34,1","ethics,37,3","ethnic,27,1,53,1,62,2,65,1,387,1","ethnicity,32,1,60,2","eugenics,17,1,20,1,29,1,32,15,33,1,34,1","eugenio,36,1","euml,18,1","europe,4,1,10,1,24,1,26,1,28,1,29,1,32,1,33,1,54,1,56,1,66,2,238,1,377,1,379,1,383,1,392,1","european,4,3,5,1,10,2,17,1,20,1,31,2,32,3,33,2,35,1,38,1,51,1,54,1,57,1,60,3,62,1,64,1,68,1,73,1,127,2,133,1,239,2,241,1,377,1,379,1,380,1,382,1,384,1,390,4,396,2,399,1","europeans,20,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,57,1,241,1,380,1,384,2,395,2","eva,34,3","evangelical,59,3","evangelicals,256,1","evelyn,53,1","even,47,1,42,1,54,1,55,1,379,3,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,395,1","evenly,381,1","event,45,1","events,29,1,45,2,54,1,377,1,387,1,388,1,392,1,396,1","eventually,55,1,63,1,130,1,242,1,391,1,390,2,395,1","everyday,384,1","everyone,76,1","everything,16,1,60,1,160,1","everywhere,55,1","evidence,46,1,57,1","evident,27,1,384,1,401,1","evils,54,1","evita,4,1,12,1,34,10,136,1","evoke,178,1","evolution,28,1,30,1,378,1,379,1","evolve,48,1,392,1","evolved,48,1,396,1","evolves,48,1","ewell,22,2","exact,26,1,48,1","exactly,58,1,60,1,239,1,396,1","exaggerated,382,1","examine,61,1,64,1,65,1","examines,23,1,56,1","example,28,1,33,1,41,1,47,1,53,1,57,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,377,1,379,1,381,2,383,1,384,1,385,1,390,2,397,1","examples,28,1,38,1,40,2,45,1,59,1,66,1,239,1,394,1","excellent,26,1,28,1,48,1,51,1,57,1,63,1,396,1","except,23,1,379,1,383,1","exception,238,1,393,1","exceptional,382,1","exceptionalism,382,1","exceptions,54,1","excerpted,49,1","excerpts,379,1","exchange,54,1","excision,56,1","executed,4,2,7,1,12,1,50,1","executes,4,1,5,1","execution,223,1","exemplified,60,1,378,1","exemplifies,38,1,63,1","exemplify,57,1,504,1","exercise,47,1,51,1","exercised,54,1,66,1","exerted,391,1","exhaustive,49,1,381,1","exhibit,85,1","exhibits,32,1","exile,4,1,9,1,24,1,34,2,50,1","exiles,4,1,12,1","exist,381,1,388,1","existed,53,2,54,1,387,1","exists,46,1","exotic,393,1","expand,386,1","expanded,4,1,10,1,22,1,28,1,386,1,387,1","expanding,380,1","expanse,21,1","expansion,22,2,23,1,39,2,46,1,172,1,390,1,396,1","expect,38,1","expectancy,3,2","expectation,45,1","expected,381,1","expedition,4,1,5,1,22,1","expelled,4,1,6,1","experience,27,1,33,1,36,1,43,1,65,1,241,1,378,1,379,2,383,1,384,1,395,1","experienced,25,1,33,1","experiences,33,3,54,1","experimentation,390,1","experiments,25,1","explain,44,1,379,1,381,1,382,1","explicitly,66,1","exploit,52,1","exploitation,52,2,385,1","exploration,387,1","explore,19,1,24,1,26,2,27,1,29,1,30,1,33,2,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,42,1,53,1,52,1,57,1,63,1,65,1,377,1,379,1,393,1","explores,23,1,25,1,28,1,30,1,32,1,33,1,39,1,62,1","exploring,22,1,27,1,32,1,33,1","explosion,59,1","explosive,390,1","export,28,3,35,1,55,1,390,1","exported,378,1","exporter,33,1","exporting,23,1","exports,378,1","exposiciones,151,1","expressed,241,1","expressing,91,1","expression,47,1,50,1,52,1","expressions,42,1,396,1","expressive,238,1","expropriated,383,1","expropriation,28,1","extend,25,1","extended,20,1","extension,32,1","extensive,26,1,377,2,382,1,383,1,386,2,387,1,388,1,391,1,392,1,393,2,439,1","extensively,437,1","extent,48,1,53,1","extract,40,1","extraordinary,19,2","extremely,42,1,239,1","extremes,55,1,380,1","eye,418,1","eyes,21,1,57,1","ez,4,1,11,1,19,3","fable,390,1","fabled,190,1","fabric,38,1","face,37,1,41,1,64,1,65,1,235,1","faced,33,1,41,1,47,1,59,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1","faces,48,1,37,2,130,1,377,1,397,1","facet,56,1","facilitate,43,1,394,1","facilitated,64,1","facilitating,39,1","fact,22,1,27,2,29,1,30,1,34,1,35,1,41,1,44,1,65,1,76,1,196,1,380,1,381,1,397,1","factions,386,1","factories,172,1","factors,19,1,29,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,47,1,44,1,53,1,59,1,62,1,65,1,377,1,381,1,382,1,385,1","facts,377,1,378,1,379,2,382,2,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,2,392,2,394,1","facundo,4,1,8,1,35,2","faded,241,1","fading,239,1","failed,26,1","failings,61,1","fair,28,3","fairly,28,2,66,1,393,1,396,1","fairs,32,1","faith,59,1,242,1","falkland,4,1,13,1","falklands,377,1","fall,29,1,49,1,57,1,390,1","falls,379,1","falsely,241,1","fame,43,1","familiar,45,1,53,1,64,1,241,1,377,1,388,1,523,1","familiarity,39,1","families,235,1,457,1","family,4,1,6,1,28,1,29,1,30,1,33,2,41,1,44,1,148,1,160,1,382,1,383,2,391,2,523,1","famine,57,1","famous,21,1,22,1,37,1,43,1,45,1,51,1,52,1,56,1,220,1,238,1,380,1,399,1","famously,390,1","fanatics,45,1","fans,394,1,397,1","far,4,1,5,1,20,1,21,1,22,2,418,1,30,1,35,1,37,1,41,1,47,1,52,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,379,6,387,1,394,1","farabundo,63,1","farm,160,1","farmer,27,1","farmers,378,1","farming,33,1,35,1,40,1,377,1","farms,28,1,382,2","farmworkers,41,2","faron,22,1","farrar,38,1","farris,47,1,60,1,178,1","farther,22,1,380,1","fascinate,379,1","fascinating,21,1,56,2","fashioned,45,1","fast,24,1,30,1,382,1,395,1","fate,37,1","fates,31,1","father,4,1,7,1","fausto,379,2","faview,244,1","fear,25,1","feat,26,1","feats,57,1","features,38,1,47,1","february,67,1,396,1","fed,377,1","feedback,3,1,2,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,41,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,46,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,52,1,58,1,54,1,55,1,56,1,57,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","feel,394,1,401,1,449,1","feeling,35,1","feelings,47,1,58,1","feels,377,1","feet,26,1","fehrenbach,390,1","feliciano,65,1","felix,377,1","felt,30,1","female,4,1,10,1,66,1,239,1","feminism,66,3","ferdinand,26,1","ferment,202,1","fernando,4,1,7,1","fertile,428,1,33,1,377,1,386,1,394,1","fertility,22,1","fervor,58,1","festivities,396,1","fever,26,1,31,4","fick,36,1","fiction,34,1","fidel,29,4,121,1,383,1","field,47,1,380,1","fields,31,1","fierce,43,1","fiesta,38,2","fifer,378,1","fifteen,65,1","fifth,30,1,535,1","fifty,54,1,395,1","fight,4,1,13,1,21,1,43,1,62,1","fighter,43,1","fighting,30,1,51,1,61,1,62,1,226,1","figure,19,1,29,1,420,1,34,1,50,1,58,2","figures,21,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,29,1,32,1,35,1,58,2,380,1,381,1,383,2,387,1,393,1","file,58,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,392,1,394,1","filled,377,1","film,60,1,217,1","final,4,1,7,1,58,1","finally,21,1,22,1,25,1,34,1,54,1,62,1,378,1,381,1,394,1,396,1","financial,31,1","find,20,1,28,1,31,1,34,3,38,1,39,3,42,2,48,1,59,2,62,1,65,1,377,1,381,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,390,1,395,4,396,1,397,1","findling,26,2","fine,238,1","finish,26,1","fink,41,1","fire,1,4,3,4,2,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,5,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,5,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,4,28,4,29,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,41,4,47,4,42,4,43,5,44,4,45,4,46,4,53,4,48,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,52,4,58,4,54,4,55,4,56,4,57,4,59,5,60,5,61,4,62,5,63,4,64,4,65,4,66,4,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,4,381,4,382,4,383,4,384,4,385,4,386,4,387,4,388,4,389,4,391,5,390,5,392,4,393,4,394,4,395,4,396,4,397,4","firing,63,1","firmin,163,1","firms,39,1","first,4,5,5,2,10,1,11,1,12,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,2,24,1,25,2,26,3,28,1,32,2,33,1,36,2,40,1,41,2,42,2,43,3,49,1,51,3,54,2,57,3,60,2,62,1,64,2,142,1,196,1,378,2,381,2,382,1,383,3,384,1,385,2,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,4,392,1,393,2,394,1,395,3,396,2,416,1,464,1","firsthand,22,1,34,1,55,1","fisher,62,2","fit,19,1,22,1,26,1,28,1,36,2,38,1,43,1,56,1,60,1,63,1,381,1,387,1,391,1","fitzgibbon,396,2","five,27,1,39,1,54,1,64,1,379,1","fix,390,1","fl,43,1,54,1","flag,47,2,42,1","flags,535,1","flank,379,1","flat,377,1,378,1,394,1","flavor,42,1,65,1,377,1","fled,53,1","fleeing,379,1","flees,4,3,6,1,9,1,12,1","fleeting,390,1","flight,25,1","flindell,394,1","flood,397,1","floor,163,1","flores,62,2","florida,47,1,48,1,58,1,55,1,65,1","flow,41,1,379,1","flowed,383,1","flower,56,1","flowering,242,1","flowers,39,1,48,1","flowing,77,1","fmln,4,2,13,2,226,1","focus,28,1,30,1,31,1,34,1,39,1,47,1,42,1,45,1,48,2,49,1,58,2,60,1,62,1,63,1,378,2,379,2,381,1,383,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,396,3","focused,32,1,61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0,3","joanne,382,1","joaquim,54,1","job,39,2","jobs,39,1","jody,64,1","joel,43,1","johan,48,1","johannes,54,1","john,1,1,20,1,23,1,26,3,27,1,41,1,33,1,35,2,40,1,49,1,58,2,61,1,76,1,380,3,392,1,393,1,397,2","johns,21,1,53,1,48,1,61,1","johnson,37,1,48,1,62,1,64,1","joined,45,1,241,1,390,1","joining,62,1,392,1","joke,65,1","jonas,387,1","jonathan,40,1,50,1,377,1","jones,22,1","jorge,24,1,29,1,57,1,65,1","jos,19,3,24,2,33,2,34,1,38,1,51,1,57,2,58,1,61,1,382,2,393,1","josé,101,1,449,1","joseph,4,1,6,1,34,1,48,1,54,1,178,1,379,1","josephe,42,2","joshua,30,1,59,1","journal,53,2","journalist,30,1","journalistic,21,1,25,1,28,1,58,1,391,1","journalists,51,1","journey,30,1,48,1","journeys,20,1","jr,1,1,29,1,41,1,47,1,58,1,55,1,56,1,382,1,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,392,1","juan,4,1,8,1,21,1,24,2,41,1,52,2,34,3,35,2,53,1,50,1,51,1,64,1,136,1,377,1,395,1","juanita,54,1","juarez,172,1","júarez,4,1,9,1","judios,163,1","judith,22,1,46,1,377,1","jujuy,377,1,401,1","julia,29,1","julian,37,1","julio,24,4","júlio,91,1","july,76,1","june,52,1,66,1","jungle,26,2","juntas,4,1,7,1","jurisdiction,42,1","justifications,59,1","justify,22,1,27,1","justifying,59,1","kal,395,2","karasch,54,1","karen,58,1","karl,1,1","katherine,39,1","kathleen,39,1,43,1,63,1,66,1","katzew,27,2","keck,25,2","keith,42,1","kemp,24,1","ken,25,1","kenen,382,1","kenneth,54,1,60,1","kent,53,1,388,1","kept,59,1","kettle,139,1","kevin,386,1","key,22,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,28,1,29,1,39,1,40,1,58,1,240,6,377,1,378,1,379,3,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,3,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,2,396,1,397,1","keys,396,1","kicking,4,1,9,1","kidding,76,1","kidnapped,30,1","kidnapping,30,2","killed,4,2,6,1,7,1","kind,30,1,53,1,56,1","kinds,32,1,55,1,56,1,148,1","king,4,3,6,2,7,1,196,1","kingdom,30,1,53,1,55,1,387,1","kings,42,2","kingston,40,1","kinsbrunner,380,2","kinship,20,1,48,1","kinzer,23,1","kirk,30,1","kirkpatrick,66,1","kirkwood,390,1","kit,47,1,55,1","kitchens,66,1","klar,66,1,394,2","klein,20,2,39,1,54,2,378,1","kleinpenning,393,1","kline,381,2","knew,52,1","knight,36,4,61,1,383,6,384,3,395,3","knopf,21,1,29,1,30,1,34,1,393,1","know,27,1,45,1,381,2","known,24,2,25,1,30,1,32,1,35,1,42,1,53,1,50,1,59,1,65,1,124,1,238,1,387,1,388,1","knoxville,36,1","kolovakos,24,1","kraay,51,1","krieger,54,1","kristine,22,1","kryzanek,384,1","kucinski,25,3","kufeld,226,1","kurds,47,1","labor,17,1,23,3,25,6,26,2,28,2,41,5,52,6,31,1,33,1,36,1,38,1,39,2,40,28,42,2,46,1,54,1,55,2,62,1,88,1,157,1,160,1,172,1,239,1,379,1,380,1,387,1","laboratory,54,1","laborers,41,1,52,1,40,1,88,1","labour,40,1","lack,386,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1","lady,64,2","lafeber,26,2,43,1","laid,127,1","laird,28,1","lake,56,1","lalo,65,1","land,28,3,41,1,30,1,31,1,33,2,42,5,377,2,378,2,379,1,381,3,382,1,386,3,387,2,388,1,391,3,396,1","landed,4,1,11,1,34,1,42,1","landholdings,4,1,9,1","landing,85,1","landless,25,1","landlocked,51,2,378,1","landowners,35,1,40,1,381,1","lands,4,1,5,1,22,1,420,1,33,3,55,1","landscape,63,1,385,1,386,2","lane,34,1,42,1","langley,65,1","language,20,1,25,1,35,1,47,1,44,3,56,1,59,1,65,2,73,1,378,1,379,1,385,2,388,1,391,1,393,1,395,1,523,1","languages,44,2,390,1","lanham,30,1,59,1","large,20,1,21,1,23,1,28,1,52,2,420,1,34,1,35,1,39,1,44,1,53,1,76,1,133,1,381,1,382,2,383,2,386,2,387,1,392,1,393,2,457,1","largely,52,1,238,1,380,1,396,1","larger,22,1,41,1,31,1,36,2,43,1,55,1,56,1,63,1,377,1,383,1,384,1,391,1,394,1,395,1,396,1","largest,21,1,30,1,45,1,53,1,232,1,379,2,387,1,502,1,535,1","largey,60,1","larosa,26,1","larry,48,1","las,4,1,5,1","last,19,2,20,1,21,1,24,1,28,1,29,1,35,2,42,1,58,1,54,1,62,2,65,1,377,1,378,1,383,1,386,1,394,2,395,2,396,1,397,1","lasted,35,1,53,2","lasting,53,1,391,1,393,1,396,1","lastly,22,1","latin,1,1,4,8,10,2,11,3,12,2,13,1,16,3,17,1,19,5,20,12,22,2,23,2,24,7,25,2,27,5,28,12,29,3,41,8,425,2,430,1,30,2,31,9,32,11,33,3,35,2,36,4,37,6,38,2,39,13,40,16,47,3,42,1,43,5,45,2,46,3,53,7,48,3,49,2,50,9,51,1,57,2,58,4,54,10,55,4,59,14,60,5,61,1,62,2,63,3,65,5,66,16,94,1,130,1,148,1,199,1,238,6,239,2,241,3,242,3,244,1,246,2,253,1,256,1,258,1,377,3,378,2,379,4,380,7,381,4,383,3,384,3,385,1,386,1,387,3,388,5,391,3,390,3,393,2,394,1,395,3,396,3,397,2,405,2,406,2,413,2,434,2,446,2,452,2,461,2,470,2,479,2,485,2,491,2,499,2,508,2,514,2,520,2,523,1,526,2,532,2,538,2,544,2,550,2","latinart,244,2","latinas,65,1","latino,60,1,65,9,535,1","latinos,17,1,41,4,65,8,232,1,390,1,395,1","launched,381,1,390,1","launches,77,1","laureate,24,1","laureates,50,1","lavrin,66,1","law,4,3,9,2,13,1,390,1","laws,4,2,5,2","lawyer,393,1","lay,387,1","layout,378,1,394,1,397,1","lays,24,1","lead,4,1,10,1,241,1,377,1,390,1,394,1","leader,25,2,36,1,43,3,58,1,62,1,63,1,377,1,379,1","leaders,4,1,13,1,22,1,58,2,61,1,396,1","leadership,22,1,58,1","leading,35,1,62,1,65,1,377,1,380,1","leads,4,2,12,1,13,1","league,41,1","leaguers,41,1","leanings,43,1,59,1,395,1","leaping,62,1","learn,393,1,395,1,397,2","learning,33,1,51,1,395,1","least,41,1,30,1,34,1,37,1,64,1,253,1,379,1","leaves,38,1","leavi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,6,1,7,1,8,1,20,1,33,1,37,1,49,3","portuguese,4,1,5,1,20,5,37,1,53,1,48,1,54,1,127,1,241,1,242,1,379,6,393,1","posada,381,1","pose,66,1","position,29,1,395,1","positive,29,1,46,1,377,1","possession,26,1","possibilities,27,1","possibility,384,1","possible,27,1,38,1,40,1,57,1,55,1,59,1,172,1","possibly,53,1","post,51,3,63,1,396,1","postcolonial,4,2,8,1,20,1,22,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,40,1,47,1,48,1,49,1,51,1,54,1,55,1,58,1,60,1","poster,91,1","posterior,58,1","postma,54,1","postponing,384,1","potent,239,1","potential,46,1,391,1,393,1","potos,4,2,5,1,52,13,57,1,62,1,377,1,378,1,394,1","potosi,17,1","potosí,190,1","poured,387,1","pouring,139,1","poverty,55,1,59,1,379,1,386,1","power,4,3,5,1,11,1,12,1,19,2,23,2,25,2,28,1,31,1,34,2,37,1,38,2,47,1,42,1,53,1,48,1,49,2,51,1,55,1,56,1,58,1,59,1,61,1,65,2,242,1,385,2,387,2,390,1,394,1","powerful,34,1,35,1,38,1,45,1,51,1,61,1,239,1,377,1,391,1,397,1","powerfully,31,1","powerhouse,418,1","powers,47,1,53,1,48,1,384,1","ppers,66,1","practical,46,1,57,1","practice,27,1,38,1,48,2","practiced,4,1,8,1,32,1,38,1,48,1","practices,20,1,23,2,32,1,53,1,48,2,242,1","practitioners,48,2,130,1","praeger,32,1,40,3,47,1,62,1,378,1,386,1,396,1","pratt,66,1","pre,36,1,44,1,51,1,57,1,239,1,378,2,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,395,1","preached,59,1","precedence,397,1","preceding,385,1","precious,21,1,52,1,387,1,390,1","precise,33,1","precisely,29,1","precolombino,85,1","predecessors,25,1","predict,130,1","predictions,46,1","predominant,175,1","predominantly,42,1,65,1,388,2","predominated,382,1,394,1","preemptive,51,1","preface,22,1,63,1","preferred,455,1","prelude,58,1","prepared,60,1","presbyterians,59,1","presence,20,1,23,1,51,1,382,1,386,1,388,1,391,3,395,1","present,4,2,15,1,25,1,27,1,29,2,32,1,46,1,42,1,241,1,377,1,378,2,379,1,381,2,382,1,386,1,387,2,388,1,391,1,392,1,395,1","presentations,16,1","presented,33,1,65,1,393,1","presently,21,1","presents,16,1,22,1,28,1,41,1,42,1,48,2,51,1,57,1,56,1,59,1,60,1,62,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,395,1,396,1","preservation,4,1,5,1","preserve,53,1","preserved,20,1,437,1","preserves,382,1","preserving,21,1","presidencies,19,1","presidency,4,1,11,1,34,1","president,4,9,8,1,9,2,10,1,11,2,12,1,13,2,19,1,25,2,30,1,36,1,51,1,65,1,94,1,397,1","presidential,4,5,11,1,12,1,13,1,15,2,25,2,136,1","presidents,4,1,14,1,25,1,379,1,381,1","press,19,3,20,7,21,5,22,3,23,5,24,3,25,2,26,4,27,2,28,9,29,5,41,5,52,5,30,2,31,2,32,4,33,6,34,6,35,3,36,6,37,3,38,3,39,3,40,6,46,2,47,4,42,6,43,5,44,5,45,6,53,4,48,8,49,4,51,3,57,6,54,13,55,6,56,4,58,3,59,5,60,6,61,7,62,6,63,4,64,2,65,7,66,6,130,1,178,1,377,3,378,4,379,5,380,4,381,4,382,3,383,4,384,3,385,2,386,6,387,6,388,6,391,7,390,5,392,2,393,5,394,2,395,3,396,3,397,2","pressure,386,1","prestige,24,1,32,1,380,3,394,1","prestigious,32,1","prevail,24,1","prevailing,25,1","prevalence,41,1","prevalent,39,1","prevent,32,1","previous,396,1","previously,31,1","pri,390,1","price,28,2,53,1,393,1","pride,238,1,380,1","priestess,178,2","primarily,4,1,10,1,32,1,62,1,377,2,380,1","primary,24,2,26,1,29,2,32,2,33,1,36,1,40,1,43,1,44,1,54,2,55,1,59,1,378,2,379,2,381,1,382,1,384,2,392,1,393,1,395,1","prince,49,2","princess,49,1","princeton,20,2,28,4,36,1,43,2,53,1,54,2,60,1,384,1,395,2","principal,28,2,30,2,387,1,390,1,394,1","principle,148,1","print,2,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,1,52,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,46,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,57,1,54,1,55,1,56,1,58,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,274,8,281,8,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","prior,23,1,26,1,43,1","prison,464,1","privacy,67,1","private,37,1,39,2,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1","privatization,39,1","privileges,27,1","privileging,377,1","prize,4,1,11,1,26,1","pro,242,1","probably,20,1,38,1,48,1,139,1","problem,32,1,40,1,47,2,45,1,381,1,385,1","problems,19,1,24,1,31,1,40,1,47,1,241,2,377,2,379,1,381,1,395,2","procedure,38,1","process,4,1,11,1,35,1,56,1,60,1,61,3,63,2,64,2,238,1,390,1","procession,136,1,151,1","proclaims,511,1","proclivity,241,1","produce,20,1,100,2","produced,52,1,50,1,54,1,172,2,390,1","producer,28,1,60,1,383,1","producers,28,2","produces,21,1","producing,52,1,390,1","product,52,1,30,1","production,23,2,24,1,28,3,52,1,44,2,54,1,55,5,385,1,386,1,390,2,395,1","productions,56,1","productive,428,1","products,33,2","professionals,239,1","profile,139,1,377,1,380,1","profiles,25,1,61,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,393,2,396,1","profoundly,54,1","profusion,381,1","program,41,1,235,1","programs,21,1,32,1,39,1,235,1,391,1","progress,4,3,9,1,13,1,21,1,22,1,25,1,30,1,32,2,33,1,35,1,45,1,49,2,51,1,54,1,61,1,377,1,379,1,397,1","progressive,396,1","project,26,1,29,2,30,1,214,1,381,1,390,1,396,2","projects,26,2,51,1","prokopy,59,1","proliferation,381,1","prolific,377,1","prologue,43,1,381,1","prolonged,34,1","prominence,25,2,60,1,394,1","prominent,51,1,59,1,60,1","promise,33,2","promised,41,1","promising,430,1","promote,57,1,59,1","promoted,33,1,38,1,382,1","promoting,397,1","pronounced,388,1","proof,64,1","propelled,34,1","proper,34,1,37,1","property,4,1,12,1,383,1","prophet,45,1,169,1","proponents,21,1","proposed,46,1","prose,384,1,387,1,390,1","prosperity,68,1,380,3,386,1,397,1,496,1","prosperous,377,1,387,1","protagonistic,40,1","protect,410,1,466,1","protective,38,2","protest,40,1,50,3,184,1,238,1","protestant,59,5,256,1","protestantism,59,8,242,2","protestants,59,1","protesting,4,1,13,1","protracted,43,1","proved,19,1,28,1","provide,24,1,25,1,29,1,41,1,36,1,38,2,76,1,379,1,395,2","provided,379,1,391,1","provides,16,2,21,3,24,1,25,2,26,2,28,2,29,1,52,1,31,1,32,2,33,3,34,1,39,1,40,2,42,1,43,1,44,2,49,1,50,1,51,1,57,1,54,1,58,1,59,2,60,2,61,1,62,1,63,2,65,1,160,1,235,1,384,1,386,1,393,1,395,1,397,1","providing,43,1,54,1,379,1","province,51,1,390,1,392,1,396,3,401,1","provinces,393,1","provincial,38,1,42,1","provisions,46,1","provocative,38,1,56,1,65,1","provoked,61,1","provoking,4,1,8,1","proxy,4,1,12,1,23,1,43,1","prudence,44,1","psychic,48,1","psychologically,393,1","pt,25,13","public,4,1,12,1,30,1,32,1,36,1,37,1,39,1,58,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,383,1,396,3","publications,48,3,66,1,388,1,392,1","published,19,1,21,1,23,1,24,2,26,1,43,1,57,1,54,1,60,1,382,1,388,2,392,1,397,1","publishers,24,1,26,1,30,1,36,1,43,1,51,1,57,1,60,2,63,1,64,1,65,1,382,1,384,1,395,2,397,1","publishes,4,5,5,1,8,2,9,1,11,1","publishing,24,1","pueblo,4,1,6,1","puerto,4,1,10,1,28,3,306,8,47,8,53,1,55,2,60,2,65,1,383,1,384,1,389,1,391,1,395,41,397,1,535,2","puertorico,395,4,534,8,535,4,536,8,537,8,538,4,539,8","pulp,118,1","pure,39,1","purpose,27,1,40,1,58,1","pursue,377,1","pushed,51,1","pyramids,44,2,57,1,56,1,242,1","quadrangle,43,1","qualities,66,1","quality,30,1","quarter,54,1,377,1,386,1","quarters,23,1,380,1","quasi,52,1","quecha,378,1","quechua,57,1,385,1","queen,49,1","queir,53,1,48,1,54,1","question,21,1,27,1,29,2,32,1,33,1,45,1,54,1,60,1,66,1,377,1","questions,16,1,19,2,20,2,21,2,22,2,23,2,24,2,25,2,26,2,27,2,28,2,29,2,41,3,52,2,30,2,31,2,32,2,33,2,34,2,35,2,36,2,37,2,38,2,39,2,40,2,46,2,47,2,42,2,43,2,44,2,45,2,53,2,48,3,49,2,50,2,51,2,57,2,54,2,55,2,56,2,58,2,59,2,60,2,61,2,62,2,63,2,64,2,65,5,66,2,377,2,378,2,379,3,380,2,381,2,382,2,383,2,384,2,385,2,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,2,390,3,392,2,393,2,394,2,395,2,396,3,397,2","quetzaltengo,387,1","quich,44,1","quichua,385,1","quick,16,1,34,1,65,1","quickly,383,1,384,1,396,1","quiet,449,1","quilombo,53,2","quilombos,4,1,17,1,20,1,29,1,34,1,36,1,40,1,53,8,54,1,55,1,379,1","quiroga,52,1","quite,28,1,42,1,60,1,66,1,379,1,390,1","quito,4,1,6,1,385,2,473,1","rabassa,24,2","race,4,1,20,3,27,6,32,7,36,3,47,1,57,1,54,2,64,1,65,1,238,1,240,1,241,8,252,8,253,4,254,8,379,2,383,1,390,2,393,1,395,1,397,1","races,32,2","racial,27,1,32,2,47,1,88,1,241,2,381,1","racine,58,2","racism,32,6,241,1","racist,32,1,241,1","racists,32,1","radical,29,1,62,1,66,1","radicalism,50,1","radicals,25,1,29,1","rafael,384,1","raged,62,1","railroad,4,1,10,1,51,1","railroads,4,1,11,1,390,2","rain,21,1","rainforest,21,9,53,1,78,1,382,1,385,1,439,1","rainforests,21,2","rainforst,21,1","rainy,39,1,380,1","raised,26,1","raises,47,1","raising,52,1","rakowski,39,1","rallies,94,1","ralph,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,392,1","ram,42,2,43,1,390,1","ramella,33,1","ramos,65,1,226,1","rampant,78,1","ran,393,1","ranchers,21,1","ranches,420,1","ranching,21,1,379,1","randal,48,1","randall,63,1","randle,40,1","rang,36,1,58,1","range,21,1,25,1,39,1,48,1,439,1","ranges,390,1","ranging,36,1,42,1,394,1","rank,26,1,58,1,148,1","ranquel,22,4","rapid,56,1,172,1,239,1","rapidly,62,1,388,1","rare,63,1,388,2","rate,21,1,239,1","rates,3,1","rather,22,1,34,1,40,1,44,1,62,1,66,2,238,2,377,1,385,1,390,1,393,1","ravin,377,1","raymond,24,1","rayo,65,2","rdenas,4,2,11,2","rdoba,377,1","reach,36,1","reached,31,1,50,1","reaching,379,1","reacted,241,1","reaction,4,2,13,1,22,1,23,1,24,2,29,1,41,1,30,1,34,1,43,1,50,1,59,1,63,2,66,1,377,1,382,1","reactionary,34,1","read,24,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,38,2,50,1,55,1,65,2,377,1,379,1,388,1","readable,20,1,28,2,41,1,33,2,45,1,48,2,49,1,57,1,58,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,63,1,65,1,378,2,380,1,381,1,383,1,385,1,395,5,396,1","reader,377,2,379,2,381,1,382,1,385,1,387,1,390,2,392,1,394,2,395,1,397,2","readers,56,1,60,1,378,1,379,1,383,1,384,1,387,1,391,1,392,1,393,1,397,3","readily,390,1","reading,29,1,38,1,53,1,54,1,377,1,379,1,380,2,381,3,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,394,1,395,4,396,1","readings,16,1,36,1,44,1,378,1,379,2,380,2,381,1,382,1,383,2,384,2,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,3,392,1,394,1,395,1","reads,62,1,91,1","ready,379,1","reagan,43,1","real,21,1,34,1,35,1,54,1","realism,24,1","realities,27,3,33,1,238,1","reality,45,1,57,1","really,377,1,379,1,388,1,390,1","rear,62,1","reason,21,1,29,1,36,1,388,1","reasons,53,1,379,1","reassessment,32,1","rebel,53,1","rebellion,4,5,5,1,6,2,13,1,17,1,52,1,42,3,45,3,57,1,55,1,62,16,394,1","rebellions,62,2","rebels,387,1","recall,385,1","received,58,1","receiving,53,1","recent,20,1,25,1,26,1,29,1,52,1,30,2,31,3,32,1,37,1,42,3,44,1,48,1,51,2,57,1,54,2,56,1,58,1,61,1,62,1,65,1,66,1,377,1,378,1,385,2,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,3,395,2,399,1","recently,23,1,26,1,30,1,39,1,60,1,393,1","recipe,39,1","recipients,30,1","reclaimed,384,1","recognition,24,1,28,1","recognize,51,1,391,1","recognized,27,1","recommended,16,1","reconciliation,38,1","reconquest,4,1,5,1","record,49,2,384,1","recorded,63,1","recording,60,1","records,59,1","recounted,53,1,239,1","recounts,29,1,50,1,397,1","recovered,394,1","recovers,4,1,7,1","recreate,53,1","recreating,20,1,48,1","recruitment,33,2","rector,380,1","recurrent,57,1,384,1,390,1","red,52,1,118,1","redefine,66,3","redemocratization,50,1","reduced,63,1","reduction,21,1,46,1","reed,45,2","refer,24,1,40,1","reference,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,2,52,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,2,46,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,54,1,55,1,58,1,59,1,60,2,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,66,1,378,1,379,1,381,1,393,1,396,2","references,378,1","referred,35,1,46,1","refers,22,1,35,1,388,1","refined,56,1","reflect,27,1,378,1","reflected,65,1","reflection,20,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,1,52,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,46,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,57,1,54,1,55,1,56,1,58,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,2,66,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,1","reflections,27,1,64,1","reflective,238,1","reform,4,1,9,1,29,1,66,1,382,1,383,1","reformer,4,1,11,1","reformist,19,1,66,1,396,1","reforms,4,1,6,1,19,2,62,1","refrigerator,4,1,10,1","refugees,387,1","refused,51,1","regalia,181,1","regard,238,1","regarded,63,1,410,1","regarding,33,1,38,1,65,1","regency,4,1,8,1","regent,49,2","reggae,60,1","regime,29,1","regimes,19,1,88,1","region,4,1,14,1,21,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,28,1,36,1,47,1,45,1,53,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,65,1,77,1,238,1,239,1,241,2,377,4,378,1,379,3,381,1,382,1,383,3,384,1,385,2,386,2,387,1,388,2,391,1,390,3,393,2,394,2,395,2,397,3,439,1,504,1","regional,36,1,46,2,378,1,380,1,381,7,383,3,384,1,387,1,390,1,395,1","regionalized,381,2,390,1","regions,21,1,31,1,53,1,54,2,379,1,381,2,383,1,385,1,390,2,397,1,439,1","register,27,1","regulation,39,2","reid,20,1,54,1","reigns,390,1","reinforced,65,1,381,2,393,1","reintroduced,217,1","reiterated,381,1","relate,27,1,395,2","related,22,2,45,1,60,1,64,1,377,1,396,1","relates,30,1","relation,383,1","relations,24,1,26,3,28,1,33,1,36,2,37,1,43,3,53,1,58,1,65,1,381,1,383,2,385,1,386,1,388,1,391,3,392,2,396,1","relationship,22,1,28,1,41,1,36,1,38,1,39,1,59,1,383,2,384,1,388,1,391,1,390,2,393,1,395,2","relationships,388,1","relative,22,1,52,1,51,1,380,1","relatively,379,1","relay,57,1","release,30,1","relevant,32,1","religion,4,1,20,1,36,1,47,1,45,2,48,6,59,3,64,1,240,1,242,6,255,8,256,4,257,8,258,4,259,8,260,8,379,1,383,1","religions,17,1,36,1,47,1,53,1,48,10,59,2,242,1,379,1,383,1","religious,20,2,43,1,44,1,45,1,48,4,57,1,54,1,64,1,238,1,242,4","relocated,394,1","remain,21,1,22,2,48,1,239,1,241,2,381,1,392,1,395,1","remained,55,1,238,1,377,1,383,2,387,1,388,1,395,1,502,1","remaining,21,1,62,1,387,1","remains,31,1,78,1,239,1,241,1,377,1,379,1,385,1,388,1","remarkable,19,1,380,1","remarkably,49,1,380,1","remembered,58,1","remembers,22,1","remembrance,43,1,48,1","reminder,41,1,390,1","renaissance,44,1","renegade,51,1","rep,3,2,396,1","repeated,43,1,379,1","replace,61,1,379,1","replaced,4,1,5,1","repository,383,1","represent,34,1,48,1","representation,395,1","representations,57,1,258,1","representative,63,1,64,1","representatives,59,1","represented,27,2,47,1","representing,27,1,504,1","represents,175,1,383,1","repression,50,1","reprint,43,1","reprinted,4,1,9,1","reproduce,53,1,55,1","reproduction,32,1","republic,3,1,4,2,9,1,10,1,23,1,28,2,41,1,31,2,36,2,47,2,53,1,49,1,51,1,60,2,296,8,382,1,384,13,388,1,389,1,395,1,396,1,397,3,466,1","republican,42,1,48,1,62,1","republicans,49,1","republics,4,2,17,1,23,1,40,1,49,1,51,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,387,1,388,1,392,2","reputation,58,1","require,44,1","required,26,1","requirements,55,1","requires,46,1","requiring,4,1,9,1","research,16,2,19,1,21,1,33,1,35,1,44,1,50,2,57,1,58,1,238,1,239,1,241,1,242,1,381,1,388,1,392,1","researching,40,1","resemblance,187,1","resented,392,1","reservations,21,1","reshape,31,1","reshaping,34,1","residence,31,1","residents,42,1","resist,208,1,381,1,394,1","resistance,34,1,48,2,51,1,54,1,55,1,62,1,390,2","resonance,50,1","resounding,241,1","resource,386,2,387,1,388,4,392,3","resources,19,1,20,1,21,2,22,2,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,2,52,1,30,1,31,2,32,1,33,2,34,1,35,2,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,2,46,1,47,1,42,2,43,2,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,3,50,1,51,1,57,2,54,2,55,2,56,1,58,2,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,2,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,238,1,239,1,241,1,242,1,381,1,390,2,396,1,455,1","respect,32,1","respectively,48,1,388,1","respond,66,1,381,1","response,45,1","rest,46,1,47,1,68,1,377,1,384,1,385,1,391,1,390,1,395,1,396,2","restall,44,2","restricted,25,1","restrictions,51,1","restructuring,23,1","rests,187,1","result,23,1,24,1,39,1,47,1,51,1,62,1,241,1,390,2,393,1","resulted,19,1,28,1,142,1,380,1,382,1,392,1","results,28,1,36,1,51,1,59,1,379,1","retained,163,1,396,1","retains,20,1,473,1","retelling,58,1","rethinking,59,1","retrenchment,29,1","return,4,1,12,1,25,1,36,1","returned,34,1,60,1","returns,4,1,8,1","rev,20,1,26,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,45,1,48,2,49,1,56,2,65,2,66,1,383,1,391,2,393,1","revenue,390,1","reverse,39,1,377,1","review,24,1,50,1,62,1,65,1","revised,60,1","revisiting,45,1","revival,60,1","revkin,21,2","revolt,4,3,6,2,7,1,58,1,62,2,142,1","revolts,4,1,7,1,62,1","revolution,4,12,6,2,7,1,11,2,12,1,13,1,17,3,23,2,24,1,28,1,29,25,41,1,52,2,30,1,33,1,34,2,36,13,38,1,43,3,50,1,58,1,61,17,62,1,63,5,66,1,142,1,382,1,383,5,390,4,393,1,455,1,457,1","revolutionaries,62,1,63,2,121,1,383,1,387,1","revolutionary,4,3,11,1,12,1,17,1,29,2,36,1,43,1,61,1,63,8,220,1,238,1,242,1,386,2,391,2,390,1","revolutions,26,2,58,1","revolving,26,1,52,1","reward,40,1","rez,4,1,9,1,29,4,47,2,42,2,43,1,55,1,382,1,383,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","rhetoric,61,1,66,1","rhumba,60,1","rhythms,60,2,384,1","ribera,65,2","rica,3,3,23,2,28,3,88,1,118,1,382,13,387,1,389,1,449,1","rican,47,2,382,1,395,10,535,2","ricans,47,1,60,1,65,1,382,2,395,4","ricardo,42,1,60,2,65,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","rice,44,2","rich,21,1,35,1,50,1,59,1,377,1,378,2,379,1,457,1","richard,23,1,52,1,32,3,34,1,35,1,44,1,53,1,56,1,63,1,65,1,393,2","riches,52,1","richest,52,1,61,1,378,1","rico,4,1,10,1,28,3,306,8,47,5,53,1,55,2,60,1,383,1,384,1,389,1,391,1,395,27,397,1","riddle,56,1","ridges,378,1,397,1","rienner,39,2,63,1,382,1","right,27,1,34,2,59,1,60,1,76,1,205,1","rights,30,1,34,1,36,1,66,2,241,1,395,1","rigidly,397,1","rigorously,379,1","rinehart,22,1,38,1","rio,4,1,12,1,28,1,31,1,35,4,42,1,49,1,54,1,67,1,160,1,199,1,379,2","río,139,1,464,1","rioja,35,1","riordan,393,1","riot,30,1","ripe,118,1","rise,25,1,28,3,31,1,34,1,35,1,43,2,56,1,59,1,61,1,63,1,64,1,377,1,380,1,382,1,384,1,386,1,394,1,541,1","rises,418,1,410,1","rising,28,1","rites,22,1","ritual,22,1,44,1","rituals,60,1","rival,4,1,5,1,53,1,380,1,386,2","rivaled,396,2","rivals,378,1","rivas,387,1","river,21,1,22,1,76,2,124,1,381,1,393,1,396,1,397,1","rivera,4,1,11,1,37,1","riverbanks,77,1","rivers,37,1,77,1,381,1,394,1","riverside,393,1","rmol,63,2","roads,57,1","roamed,35,1","roasting,118,1","robert,1,1,28,1,34,1,40,1,47,1,42,2,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,50,1,54,2,55,1,58,1,60,1,130,1,178,1,378,2,379,1","robin,30,1","robins,62,2","robocops,124,1","rochelle,384,1","rock,377,1","rockefeller,23,1","rode,35,1","roderick,49,1","rodolfo,63,1,65,3","rodr,50,1,51,1,393,1","rodriguez,65,1","roett,393,1","roger,48,1","rojas,52,2","role,20,2,25,1,26,1,52,1,31,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,2,40,1,42,1,44,1,49,1,51,1,57,1,58,1,60,1,64,1,66,1,175,1,242,1,377,1,393,1,397,1","roles,28,1,52,1,37,2,66,6,239,3","roman,48,1","romance,54,1","romanticizing,38,1","romero,63,2","romo,65,1","ronald,379,1","rondon,21,2","rooms,133,2","roosevelt,4,1,10,1,43,1","roots,30,1,39,1,40,1,53,1,48,2,55,1,59,1,60,1,63,2,394,1","roped,35,1","roque,63,2","rosas,4,2,8,1,9,1,22,2,35,3,51,1","rose,25,1,34,1,36,1","rosen,178,1","ross,63,1","rothenberg,41,1","rouge,23,1,54,1","rough,390,1","roughly,33,1,397,1,475,1","routes,26,1","routine,383,1","routledge,30,1,59,1,65,1","row,43,1,380,1","rowman,26,1,30,1,64,1","roy,60,2,397,1","royal,4,1,6,1,26,1","rquez,24,4,30,1,65,1","rte,36,1","rubber,4,1,10,1,21,1,44,1,394,1","rugged,22,1","ruin,44,1","ruiz,390,1","rule,4,4,7,1,9,1,13,2,25,1,51,2,57,1,61,4,62,2,379,1,383,1,388,1,390,1,393,2,395,1,396,1,511,1","ruled,49,3,51,2,391,1,393,1","ruler,51,1","rulers,25,2,32,1,50,1,51,2,388,1","rules,4,2,8,2","rulfo,24,2","ruling,32,1,62,1,391,1","rumba,60,2","run,39,1,392,1,455,1","runaway,53,4","running,29,1","rupture,383,1","rural,62,1,226,1,377,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,394,1","rush,394,1","rushed,202,1","russell,396,4","russia,383,1","rutgers,33,1,38,1,53,1,48,1,54,1,59,1","ruth,47,1","ruthless,387,1","ryal,42,1","sab,4,2,8,1,9,1","sacks,393,1","sacred,56,1,64,1","sacrifice,44,1,56,5","sacrificed,58,1","sacrificial,57,1,56,1","saddam,51,1","sader,25,2","safford,30,1,381,1","sag,384,1","said,239,1,390,1","saint,36,1","saints,425,1,48,1,238,1,246,1,258,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","sale,258,1","salient,28,1,46,1,65,1","salsa,60,4","salvador,3,3,4,2,13,2,17,1,23,1,28,3,43,1,61,1,63,12,226,1,298,8,379,2,386,18,388,2,389,1,416,2","salvadoran,4,1,13,1,63,3,386,4","salvadorans,386,1,482,1","salvdor,4,1","samba,60,1","same,22,1,28,1,33,4,39,1,46,2,53,1,73,1,242,1,388,1,394,1","samoiloff,395,2","sample,65,1","samuel,33,1,61,1","san,36,1,58,6,61,1,377,1,382,2,387,1,388,1,395,1,449,1","sand,394,1","sandinista,4,2,13,2,43,3,511,1","sandinistas,17,1,43,2,61,1,63,1,391,2","sandino,4,1,43,14,63,2,166,1,391,2,511,2","sank,55,1","santa,4,1,8,1,34,1,64,1,378,1","santana,395,2","santer,48,14","santiago,428,1,50,1,380,3,383,1","santo,464,1,466,1","săo,4,1,13,1,418,1","sap,202,1","sar,43,3,55,1,391,1","sara,66,1","saravia,19,1","sarlo,66,1","sarmiento,4,2,8,1,9,1,35,1","sater,380,2","saturated,54,1","saturday,65,1","saw,242,2,390,1,394,1","sawrey,382,2,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,2","say,27,1,35,1,76,1,241,1,397,1","sc,36,1","scale,21,1,52,2,56,1,383,1,390,1","scanned,76,1","scarano,55,1","scarecrow,393,1","scattered,439,1","scene,64,1,379,1,384,1,390,1","scenes,394,2","schaaf,63,1","schell,40,1","scheme,241,1,390,1","schemes,28,2,33,4,381,1","schlesinger,23,1","schneider,379,1","scholarly,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,2,26,1,28,1,29,1,41,1,52,1,33,2,34,1,35,2,36,2,37,1,40,2,42,3,43,1,44,1,48,3,49,4,57,2,54,2,55,2,58,2,62,2,65,2,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,390,1,393,2,395,1","scholars,26,1,31,2,48,1","scholarship,53,1,379,1,385,1,393,1","school,44,1,175,1","schools,32,1","schulman,53,1","schuster,26,1","schwarcz,49,1","schwartz,53,1,48,1,54,1,55,1","science,32,5,39,1,44,1,384,1","scientific,32,9,241,1","scientist,382,1,396,1","scientists,26,1,393,1","scobie,33,3,377,3","scope,381,1","scores,133,1","scott,56,1,393,1","scoundrels,26,1","scrutiny,30,2","sculptor,244,1","sculpture,425,1,56,1,196,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","sculptures,44,1,56,2","sea,26,1,378,1,380,2,464,1","seacoast,378,1","search,2,5,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,20,1,21,2,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,1,52,1,307,8,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,4,39,1,40,1,46,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,57,1,54,1,55,1,56,1,58,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,1,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,172,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,2,397,2","searching,397,1","seas,26,1,517,1","season,21,1","seasonally,41,1","seat,42,1,410,1","seated,139,1,205,1","sebba,48,1","second,1,4,2,4,3,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,4,17,4,19,5,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,4,28,5,29,4,41,4,52,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,5,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,46,4,47,4,42,5,43,5,44,4,45,6,53,4,48,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,57,4,54,4,55,4,56,4,58,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,4,64,5,65,4,66,4,121,1,136,1,163,1,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,5,381,5,382,5,383,5,384,5,385,5,386,4,387,5,388,4,389,4,391,5,390,4,392,4,393,5,394,4,395,9,396,5,397,4","secondary,29,1,36,1,378,1,379,1,382,1,392,1","seconds,76,1","secrets,37,1","section,379,1,381,1,390,1,393,1,395,2","sections,44,1,379,1,393,1","sector,39,5","sectors,39,2","secular,396,1","securely,19,1","security,39,1","sedentary,22,1,378,1,381,2,386,1,387,1","see,24,1,418,1,46,2,64,1,66,1,76,1,148,1,253,1,396,1","seeds,85,1","seeger,50,1","seek,41,1","seeking,28,1,45,1,59,1,160,1,377,1,384,1,397,1","seeks,379,1","seem,45,1,377,1","seemed,21,1,25,1,58,1,66,1,382,1,383,1,384,1","seemingly,24,1","seems,45,1,55,1","seen,29,2,35,1,39,1,64,1,396,1","seismic,57,1","seized,391,1","seizes,4,1,8,1","select,40,1,44,1,282,8","selected,379,1,381,2,384,1,396,1","selection,24,1,29,1,36,1,42,1,50,1,54,2,380,1","selections,378,1,384,2,392,1","seligson,63,1","sell,4,1,9,1,39,2,48,1","selling,39,1","seminar,44,1,66,1","semisedentary,393,1","send,379,1","sends,4,1,5,1","senegal,20,1","sense,47,1,48,1,57,1,54,1,56,2,59,1,61,1,381,1,382,1,383,2,395,3,441,1","sent,27,1,62,1","sentiments,61,1","separate,26,1,379,2,384,1,396,1","separated,37,1,73,1,379,1,392,1","separating,26,1","separation,30,1","sergio,43,1,62,1,380,1","series,26,1,30,1,44,1,50,1,57,1,56,1,377,2,379,1,380,1,387,1,390,1,393,2,394,1,395,1,396,2,397,1","serious,381,1","sert,45,1,379,1","serulnikov,62,1","servants,54,1","serve,20,1,27,1,42,1,58,1,66,1,379,1,393,1,395,2","served,23,1,32,1,34,1,48,1","serves,30,1,393,1","service,39,1","services,52,1,39,1","sessions,56,1","set,4,1,5,1,27,1,47,2,62,1,67,1,102,2,377,1,381,1,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,2,391,1,392,1,396,2","sets,27,1,379,1","setting,48,1,387,1","settings,60,1","settled,386,1","settlement,53,1,77,1,380,1,382,1,387,1","settlements,33,1,53,2","settlers,4,1,5,1,21,1","seven,44,1,57,1,54,1","seventeen,380,1","seventeenth,52,1","several,20,1,21,1,31,1,378,1,380,1,393,1","severed,394,1","sex,37,2,66,1","sexuality,37,1","shade,59,1","shadow,47,1,241,1,391,1","shadows,23,1","shame,37,1","shanty,547,1","shantytown,250,1","shape,26,1,46,1,47,1,57,1,65,1","shaped,29,1,31,1,40,1","shaper,61,1","shaping,43,1,58,1,65,1,387,1","share,16,1,26,1,29,1,63,2,384,1,394,1,455,1","shared,63,1,377,1,379,2","sharer,44,1","shares,379,1","shattered,382,1","she,34,3","shearwater,21,1","shechem,37,1","shed,66,1","sheesley,43,1","sheldon,40,1","sherman,390,1","shift,383,1","shifting,61,1","shifts,36,1,383,1,384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51,1,60,1,64,1,241,2,377,2,390,2,395,1,396,1","storyline,390,1","straight,393,1","strains,25,1,59,2","strangers,33,2","strategic,391,2","strategically,395,1","strategies,21,1,33,1","strategy,30,1,32,1","streambed,21,1","streams,77,1","street,39,1,397,1,437,1,466,1","streets,36,1,43,1,66,1,136,1","stretch,52,1,418,1,380,1","stretching,34,1,65,1","strictly,51,1","strife,63,1","striffler,23,1","strike,4,1,13,1,51,1","striking,377,1","string,385,1","stringing,21,1","strip,378,1","stripped,118,1","stroessner,393,1","strong,41,1,53,1,65,4,377,1,380,3,388,1","stronger,58,1","stronghold,386,2,395,2","strongholds,394,1","strongly,37,1,239,1,381,1,391,1,390,1","struck,394,1","structural,39,1","structure,22,1,42,1,44,1,56,1,391,1,395,1","structures,20,2,48,1,57,1,54,1,242,1,387,2,390,1,541,1","struggle,21,1,23,1,25,1,30,1,36,1,40,1,47,1,49,1,54,1,58,1,66,1,378,2,390,1,397,1","struggled,387,1","struggles,21,1","stuart,53,1,48,1,54,1,55,1","stubborn,62,1","student,1,4,2,4,3,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,4,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,5,28,4,29,4,41,4,52,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,5,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,46,4,47,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,53,4,48,4,49,4,50,5,51,5,57,5,54,4,55,4,56,4,58,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,5,64,4,65,4,66,4,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,377,4,378,4,379,5,380,6,381,4,382,4,383,5,384,5,385,4,386,4,387,4,388,4,389,4,391,4,390,4,392,4,393,5,394,5,395,4,396,4,397,4","students,4,1,13,1,19,1,20,5,21,1,22,2,23,1,24,3,26,2,28,5,29,1,52,2,30,1,31,2,32,2,33,4,34,5,35,2,36,2,37,2,38,1,39,3,40,2,47,1,42,4,43,2,44,2,53,4,48,1,49,2,51,2,57,1,54,4,55,3,58,3,59,2,62,2,63,1,65,4,66,2,238,1,239,1,241,1,242,1,377,3,379,1,380,3,381,2,383,2,384,1,385,1,388,1,390,3,393,1,394,1,395,6,396,3","studies,1,1,21,2,22,1,23,1,28,2,31,1,33,1,53,1,48,1,50,2,54,1,56,1,64,1,378,1,388,1,393,1","study,16,1,20,2,23,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,2,52,1,31,5,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,39,1,40,1,42,1,43,2,48,1,57,2,54,2,55,2,58,1,59,1,61,1,62,3,63,1,64,1,65,2,130,2,379,1,386,1,395,1","style,24,1,377,1,396,1,397,1","styles,238,1","stylistic,396,1","subjects,24,1,425,1,238,1,246,1,393,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","subjugated,22,1","subordinated,239,1","subsequent,380,1,383,1","subsequently,62,1","subsistence,40,1,54,1","substantial,41,1,160,1,393,1,396,1","substituted,383,1","substitution,4,1,11,1","subtitles,392,1","subtlety,60,1","subverting,62,1","succeeded,49,1,392,1","success,24,1,28,1,387,1","successful,26,1,29,1,390,1","successfully,19,1","successor,51,1","succinct,21,1,39,1,40,1,62,1,380,1,393,1,395,2,397,1","succinctly,381,1","suchlicki,383,1,390,1","sucre,410,1","sue,25,2,60,1,63,1","suez,26,1","suffered,51,1,396,1","sufferings,235,1","suffrage,4,2,10,1,12,1","sugar,4,1,5,1,17,1,36,1,40,1,47,1,42,3,53,1,49,1,54,1,55,28,202,1,379,3,383,3,395,2","sugarcane,55,2,202,1,377,1","suggest,38,1,53,1","suggested,25,1,36,1,46,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,382,1,383,2,384,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1,390,3,392,1,394,1,395,1","suggestion,30,1","suggestions,379,1,395,2","suggests,30,1,48,2,57,1,56,1,241,1,380,1,395,1","suit,390,1","suitable,28,1,33,1,380,1","suited,66,1","sul,420,1,35,3,379,1","sula,388,1","sum,379,1","summaries,381,1","summed,61,1","summer,67,1","sun,22,1,56,1","superficial,48,1","superior,32,1,38,1","superiority,59,1,390,1","supernatural,22,1","supervised,41,1","supplied,226,1","support,2,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,2,20,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,2,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,41,1,52,1,30,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,3,35,1,36,2,37,1,38,1,39,1,40,1,46,1,47,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,53,1,48,1,49,1,50,1,51,1,57,1,54,1,55,1,56,1,58,1,59,1,60,1,61,1,62,2,63,1,64,1,65,1,66,1,91,1,235,1,238,1,239,1,240,1,241,1,242,1,377,2,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,382,1,383,1,384,1,385,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,389,1,391,1,390,1,392,1,393,1,394,1,395,2,396,1,397,2","supported,50,1,386,1,391,1","supporters,25,1,383,1","supports,4,1,13,1","supposed,27,1","supposedly,34,1,393,1","supremacy,241,2","supreme,410,1","sure,32,1,37,1,66,1","surely,52,1","surfaced,377,1","surge,33,2,242,1","surname,390,1","surround,21,1","surrounding,23,1,41,1,46,1,54,2,133,1,157,1","surrounds,34,1","survey,36,1,39,1,45,1,57,1,60,1,377,2,378,2,379,1,380,2,383,1,384,3,390,1,393,1,394,1,395,1,396,1,397,3","surveying,381,1","surveys,20,1,26,1,57,1,54,2","survival,66,1","survived,44,2","surviving,39,1","susan,40,1,42,1,57,1","susana,382,1,386,1,387,1,388,1,391,1","susanne,387,1","sustainable,21,3,78,1","sustained,57,1,60,1","sustaining,242,1","suzanne,31,1,65,1","swath,379,1","sweeping,377,1","sweet,20,2,48,2,202,1","sweetness,55,1","sweig,29,1","swim,76,1","swinging,57,1","sworn,541,1","sylvia,66,1","symbol,64,2,392,1","symbolic,22,1,25,1,32,1,42,1","symbols,35,1,47,1,44,1","sympathetically,38,1","sympathy,38,1","syncretic,48,1,242,1","syncretism,48,1","synonymous,378,1","synopsis,50,1,58,1,396,1","synthetic,22,1,34,1","syracuse,43,2","system,27,4,28,2,37,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6,1,57,1,54,1,377,1,379,1,380,2,381,1,383,1,387,1,390,2,393,1,394,1,397,1","undergraduates,57,1,58,1,377,1,381,1,382,1,391,1,390,1,393,3,395,3,397,1","underground,29,1","undermined,19,1","understand,31,1,63,1,65,2","understanding,20,1,21,1,29,2,32,1,46,1,47,1,44,1,48,1,380,1,383,1","understood,23,1,32,1,40,1,48,1,61,1","underway,4,4,5,1,10,1,11,1,13,1,66,1","underwent,19,1,25,1,33,1,390,1","undesirables,33,1","undp,3,1","unemployment,39,2","uneven,380,1","unexcavated,387,1","unfamiliarity,53,1","unfinished,50,1","unfortunately,19,1,58,1","unified,379,1","uniforms,187,1","unify,66,1","unifying,21,1","unimpressive,381,1","unions,40,1","unique,16,1,390,1","uniquely,38,1","united,3,2,4,1,8,1,17,1,22,1,23,10,26,7,28,1,29,1,41,8,47,3,30,2,32,1,33,2,35,1,39,2,40,1,46,3,43,4,53,2,50,1,59,1,63,1,64,1,65,9,66,1,88,1,160,1,214,1,226,1,232,1,241,1,242,1,377,1,379,1,381,1,383,3,384,1,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,6,390,3,395,7,396,1,397,2","uniting,45,1","unity,4,1,13,1,91,1,381,1","universidad,382,1","universitaria,380,1","university,4,1,13,1,19,3,20,7,21,5,22,3,23,5,24,2,25,1,26,3,27,3,28,9,29,3,41,4,47,4,52,5,30,2,31,3,32,3,33,6,34,3,35,3,36,5,37,3,38,3,39,2,40,5,46,1,42,7,43,5,44,4,45,6,53,2,48,7,49,4,50,1,51,2,57,4,54,12,55,6,56,2,58,2,59,4,60,7,61,7,62,6,63,1,64,1,65,4,66,4,130,1,178,1,377,3,378,2,379,3,380,3,381,3,382,4,383,4,384,1,385,2,386,4,387,4,388,3,391,4,390,3,392,2,393,3,394,2,395,3,396,2,397,2","univision,65,1","unknown,425,1,31,1,100,1,102,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","unlike,47,1,43,1,386,1,395,1,397,1","unmistakably,377,1","unofficially,47,1","unpatriotic,241,1","unprecedented,24,1","unquestionably,55,1,58,1,60,1,390,1,410,1,502,1","unrestrained,94,1","unsustainable,19,1","untapped,59,1","until,43,1,51,1,54,2,238,1,384,1,387,1,392,1,394,1","unusual,56,1,381,1,396,1","update,55,1,396,1","updated,388,1,391,1,390,1","upon,41,1,33,2","upper,4,1,6,1,62,2,378,1,380,1,387,1","uprising,4,4,6,3,12,1,36,1,62,1,386,1,390,1","upton,61,1","urban,25,1,29,1,31,1,39,2,42,1,54,1,60,1,377,1,387,2,396,1,399,1","urbana,54,1","urbanization,31,1,239,1","urge,17,1,242,1,379,1,387,1","uribe,30,1","urquidi,57,1","uruguay,3,3,4,6,10,1,11,1,13,4,19,9,33,4,35,6,51,1,66,2,364,8,379,1,389,1,393,2,394,1,396,30,540,8,541,4,542,8,543,8,544,4,545,8","uruguayan,4,2,13,1,15,1,19,1,33,1,35,1,130,2,396,5","uruguayans,377,1,396,1","usa,65,1","usage,27,1","use,32,1,48,1,383,1,396,1,397,2,523,1","used,20,1,24,1,27,1,29,1,47,1,30,1,37,1,38,1,43,1,66,1,464,1","useful,28,2,33,2,34,1,36,1,42,1,45,1,51,1,54,2,61,2,377,2,378,2,379,3,380,3,381,2,387,1,390,2,392,1,393,1,395,3,396,1,397,1","uses,57,2","usually,47,1,76,1","uuml,18,1,66,1","vagabonds,35,2","valdez,65,2","vale,45,1","valerie,378,1","vales,395,2","valley,428,1,57,1,380,2","valleys,378,1,381,1,385,1,394,1","vallunos,381,1","valuable,26,1,32,1,44,1,378,1,392,1","value,24,1,239,1,384,1","valued,390,1","values,22,1,32,1","van,244,1","vanger,19,1","vanished,547,1","vanishing,35,1,379,1","vantage,34,1","var,36,2,58,16,392,1,397,3","vargas,4,3,11,2,12,1,24,2,379,1","variable,28,1,239,1","varied,27,1,63,1,239,1","varieties,59,2","variety,28,1,35,1,54,1,60,1,61,1,241,1","various,21,1,23,1,24,1,28,1,32,1,46,1,44,2,48,1,56,1,58,1,211,1,258,1","variously,241,1","vary,55,1","varying,384,1","vassouras,28,1","vast,41,1,54,2,58,1,77,1,394,1","vastness,379,1","vehicle,50,1","vein,395,1","vendors,39,1","venezuela,3,3,4,1,7,1,21,2,28,2,425,1,54,1,58,2,246,1,365,8,379,1,381,1,389,1,397,22,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,546,8,547,4,548,8,549,8,550,5,551,8","venezuelan,4,1,6,1,36,1,211,1,397,6","veritable,394,1","version,35,1,53,1,60,1,386,1,387,1,388,1","versions,48,1","verso,25,1","versus,25,1","vertically,26,1","vervuert,393,1","vestiges,387,1","vez,397,2","vi,49,1","via,392,1","viable,396,1","vialo,395,2","vibrant,387,1","viceregal,42,1","viceroyalties,42,1","viceroyalty,4,1,6,1,393,1,394,2","victim,63,1","victims,30,1,56,1","victor,50,4,184,1,385,1","victory,25,2,425,1,30,1,58,1,246,1,405,1,406,1,413,1,434,1,446,1,452,1,461,1,470,1,479,1,485,1,491,1,499,1,508,1,514,1,520,1,526,1,532,1,538,1,544,1,550,1","vidal,54,1","vieja,541,1","view,29,1,38,1,48,1,56,1,63,2,383,2,393,1","viewed,66,1,241,3,391,1,390,1,393,1","views,45,1,66,1","vignettes,23,1","vigorous,66,1","vigorously,58,1,386,1","vii,4,1,7,1","viking,41,1,55,1,65,1","vila,32,2","villa,220,1","village,53,1,61,1","villalobos,380,1","vincent,40,1","vinhosa,379,1","vintage,36,1,395,2","violence,30,1,37,1,66,1,377,1,382,1,387,1","violeta,50,3","viotti,49,1","virgin,17,1,59,1,64,8,229,2,241,1,242,1,258,2,390,1","virginia,54,1,59,1","virtually,23,1,381,1,397,1","visa,397,1","visible,44,2","vision,38,3,45,1,58,2,64,1","visions,45,1,56,1,63,1","visit,175,1,229,1","visited,39,1,44,1,54,1,64,1,488,1","visitor,32,1","visitors,377,1","vista,60,2,217,1","vivid,41,2,30,1,38,1,59,1,396,1","vodou,48,3","vogue,60,1","voice,50,1","voices,66,1","vol,23,1","volcano,410,1","vols,61,1,393,1","volume,23,1,26,1,33,1,36,1,48,1,377,1,380,1,390,1,396,1","volumes,61,1","von,385,1","vote,4,1,10,1","voters,65,1","voyage,26,1","vs,4,1,17,1,61,1,63,1,377,1,391,1","vulnerable,388,1","wachoota,43,1","wade,32,1","wage,28,2,40,2","waged,21,1,35,1,43,1","wagenheim,395,4","wainwright,25,1","wake,379,1","waldo,105,1","walker,62,1,391,2","walking,30,1","walks,46,1","walled,42,1","walls,57,1,466,1","walter,21,1,26,1,43,1","waltraud,378,2","wang,49,1,65,1","wanted,65,1","wanting,393,1","wants,63,1,393,1","war,4,15,6,1,8,4,9,3,10,1,11,1,13,3,17,1,22,1,29,1,30,1,34,4,43,5,45,3,50,1,51,12,59,1,61,2,63,2,187,1,377,2,380,1,382,1,383,2,386,2,387,2,391,1,390,1,393,5,396,1","ward,31,1,53,1,62,2","warfare,44,1","warmer,378,1","warming,21,2","warren,28,1,52,1,393,2","warring,396,1","warriors,56,1","wars,4,1,6,1,19,1,23,1,27,1,30,1,36,1,38,1,46,1,54,2,58,2,62,4,64,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,380,1,381,1,386,1,390,1,393,3,394,1,397,1","washing,39,1","washington,21,1,39,1,383,1,386,1,390,1","wasn,54,1","waste,127,1","watched,396,1","water,76,1,77,1,139,1,214,1","watered,377,1","waters,388,2","watershed,26,1","wave,25,1,33,1,65,1,391,1,394,1","waves,41,1,60,1,390,1","way,4,1,10,1,26,1,29,2,41,2,30,1,31,1,46,1,45,1,48,1,50,1,60,1,76,1,378,1,379,1,385,1,392,2,523,1","wayne,43,1,53,1","ways,22,2,27,2,32,1,35,1,37,1,40,1,44,2,53,1,48,1,57,1,54,1,242,1,381,1,384,1","wdi,3,1","weak,381,1","weakened,36,1","wealth,48,1,54,1,55,1,378,1,379,1,382,1,387,2,390,1,394,1","wealthy,42,1,388,1","weaver,43,1","website,1,4,3,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,5,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,4,28,4,29,4,41,4,47,4,52,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,46,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,53,4,48,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,57,4,54,4,55,4,56,4,58,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,4,64,4,65,4,66,4,151,1,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,244,1,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,4,381,4,382,4,383,4,384,4,385,4,386,4,387,4,388,4,389,4,391,4,390,4,392,4,393,4,394,4,395,4,396,4,397,4,2,4","wedel,48,1","weidenfeld,382,1","weighing,46,1","weight,385,1","weinstein,396,2","welcome,1,4,3,4,4,4,5,4,6,4,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,14,4,15,4,16,8,17,4,19,4,20,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,4,28,4,29,4,41,4,47,4,52,4,418,4,420,4,425,4,428,4,430,4,30,4,31,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,39,4,40,4,46,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,53,4,48,4,49,4,50,4,51,4,57,4,54,4,55,4,56,4,58,4,59,4,60,4,61,4,62,4,63,4,64,4,65,4,66,4,67,4,68,4,73,4,76,4,77,4,78,4,85,4,88,4,91,4,94,4,97,4,100,4,101,4,102,4,103,4,104,4,105,4,118,4,121,4,124,4,127,4,130,4,133,4,136,4,139,4,142,4,143,4,148,4,151,4,154,4,157,4,160,4,163,4,166,4,169,4,172,4,175,4,178,4,181,4,184,4,187,4,190,4,191,4,196,4,199,4,202,4,205,4,208,4,211,4,214,4,217,4,220,4,223,4,226,4,229,4,232,4,235,4,238,4,239,4,240,4,241,4,242,4,244,4,246,4,250,4,253,4,256,4,258,4,366,8,377,4,378,4,379,4,380,4,381,4,382,4,383,4,384,4,385,4,386,4,387,4,388,4,389,4,391,4,390,4,392,4,393,4,394,4,395,4,396,4,397,4,399,4,401,4,405,4,406,4,410,4,413,4,416,4,434,4,437,4,439,4,441,4,446,4,449,4,452,4,455,4,457,4,461,4,464,4,466,4,470,4,473,4,475,4,479,4,482,4,485,4,488,4,491,4,496,4,499,4,502,4,504,4,508,4,511,4,514,4,517,4,520,4,523,4,526,4,530,4,532,4,535,4,538,4,541,4,544,4,547,4,550,4,2,4","welcoming,33,1","welfare,19,3,57,2,66,1,396,1","wells,28,1","wendy,25,1","went,34,1","were,20,1,22,3,23,4,24,4,26,2,27,8,41,1,52,3,31,1,32,7,33,3,35,6,36,1,37,2,38,5,42,3,44,2,45,1,53,3,48,2,49,2,50,5,51,3,57,2,54,5,55,2,56,2,58,1,59,4,60,2,61,2,62,2,63,2,66,1,73,1,88,1,226,1,238,1,239,2,242,1,378,1,380,2,383,1,384,1,385,2,386,2,387,2,391,3,390,1,392,2,393,1,394,1,396,2,496,1","wesleyan,55,1","wesson,378,1","west,20,2,23,1,48,1,60,1,379,1,383,1,385,1,393,1","western,20,1,26,1,383,1,387,2","westport,26,1,29,1,47,1,32,1,40,4,51,1,57,1,54,1,56,1,58,1,62,1,65,1,377,1,379,1,380,1,383,1,390,1","westview,36,1,59,1,63,1,66,2,378,1,379,1,381,1,384,2,387,3,388,3,391,3,393,3,396,2","wheat,33,1,35,1,377,1","whereas,378,1","whereby,27,1,60,1","whether,37,1,39,1,396,1","whigham,51,3","while,4,1,8,1,21,1,27,1,47,1,33,1,36,1,37,1,39,1,58,1,73,1,238,1,242,1,377,2,379,1,380,1,381,2,382,1,384,1,385,1,387,1,395,1,396,2","whitaker,396,1","white,27,1,32,1,42,3,54,1,62,1,67,1,241,2,386,1,393,3","whiten,32,1","whiteness,32,1","whitening,32,2","whites,62,2","whitest,390,1","who,4,1,10,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,26,2,27,3,28,1,29,1,52,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,35,4,36,1,37,1,38,3,39,2,44,2,49,1,50,4,51,3,54,1,58,1,59,2,60,1,62,2,63,2,64,1,65,1,73,1,241,1,377,2,379,2,383,1,384,1,388,1,391,1,390,1,393,5,395,2,397,1,439,1","whole,47,1,382,2,383,1,384,1,386,2,387,2,388,2,391,2,393,1,396,1,496,1","whom,21,1,88,1,378,1","whose,32,1,37,1,54,1,63,1,64,1,66,1,253,1,380,1,388,1","wiarda,384,1","wide,4,1,12,1,48,1,67,1,76,1,377,1,378,1,379,1,517,1","widely,20,1,24,1,37,1,39,1,50,1,58,1,73,1,239,1,377,1,385,1,439,1","wider,26,1","widespread,19,1,28,1,62,1","wiener,36,1,53,1,60,1,384,1,395,2","wife,34,1,50,1",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arrFiles=new Array();arrFiles[0]=new Array(1,"credits.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","CREDITS	John Charles Chasteen and William G. Acree, Jr., Co-Authors and Co-Editors of all site content	Special thanks to: Steven Hoge and Karl Bakeman, W. W. Norton & Company Robert N. Anderson, Associate Director of the Institute of Latin American Studies at UNC Chapel Hill",1);arrFiles[1]=new Array(2,"search.htm","2005-12-13"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[2]=new Array(3,"statistics.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search	From the UN Statistics Division on-line database of social indicators. GDP Per capita in US (based on year 2003) United States: 36,924 Japan: 33,819 Mexico: 5,945 Chile: 4,523 Costa Rica: 4,189 Panama: 3,400 Argentina: 3,375 Uruguay: 3,274 Venezuela: 2,994 Cuba: 2,762 Brazil: 2,700 Dominican Republic: 2,408 El Salvador: 2,302 Peru: 2,238 Ecuador: 2,108 Guatemala: 1,963 Colombia: 1,744 Paraguay: 1,001 Honduras: 980 Bolivia: 878 Nicaragua: 750 From August 2004 WDI (World Development Indicators) on line database, compiled by the World Bank group. Population & GDP based on 2003; life expectancy on 2002. Life Expectancy (2002) Population (millions) GDP (billions) Costa Rica 77.6 4.0 17.5 Cuba 76.8 11.3 no data Chile 76.3 15.6 72.4 Panama 74.9 3.0 12.9 Uruguay 74.6 3.4 11.2 Argentina 74.3 38.4 129.7 Venezuela 73.7 25.5 84.8 Mexico 73.6 102.3 626.1 Colombia 71.8 44.4 77.6 Paraguay 70.8 5.6 5.8 Ecuador 70.4 13.0 26.9 El Salvador 70.1 6.5 14.4 Peru 69.8 27.1 61.0 Brazil 68.6 176.6 492.3 Dom. Rep. 67.2 8.7 15.9 Honduras 66.1 7.0 7.0 Guatemala 65.5 12.3 24.7 Bolivia 63.6 9.0 8.0 United States 76.9 291.0 10.9 trillion Literacy Rates from the UN Human Development Index, based on 2002 data ( http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/indic/indic_2_2_1.html ) Uruguay 97.7 Argentina 97.0 Cuba 96.9 Costa Rica 95.8 Chile 95.7 Venezuela 93.1 Panama 92.3 Colombia 92.1 Paraguay 91.6 Ecuador 91.0 Mexico 90.5 Bolivia 86.7 Brazil 86.4 Peru 85.0 Dom. Rep. 84.4 Honduras 80.0 El Salvador 79.7 Nicaragua 76.7 Guatemala 69.9 Haiti 51.9 U.S. 99 Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[3]=new Array(4,"timelines.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Colonial Period The Encounter (1492-1600) Colonial Crucible (1600-1800) National Period Independence (1810-1825) Postcolonial Blues (1825-1850) Progress (1850-1880) Neocolonialism (1870-1930) Nationalism (1910-1945) Revolution (1945-1960) Reaction (1960-1990) Neoliberalism (1990- ) The Present Colonial Period The Encounter (1492-1600)	1400s: slave trade 1 underway, led by Portuguese	1492: Completion of Reconquest in Iberian Peninsula; arrival of Columbus \'s expedition to Hispaniola (the Indies)	1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral mistakenly lands in Brazil. For the first three decades of the 1500s Portugal ignored Brazil, concentrating on its monopoly trade with the Far East	1519: Spaniards first set foot in Mexico. By 1521 the Spaniards, along with aid from rival indigenous groups and the decimating power of European diseases, had conquered the Aztec empire 2	1530s: Portugal sends settlers, beginning sugar cultivation and destruction of indigenous societies in Brazil. Indigenous populations replaced by slaves brought from Africa	1532: Pizarro captures and executes Atahualpa 3	1540s: Major mining zones in Zacatecas and Potosí 4 opened	1542: Spanish crown issues the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians, limiting encomiendas	1544-49: Rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro against new encomienda laws	1552: Bartolomé de las Casas publishes A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies Colonial Crucible (1600-1800)	1680: Pueblo rebellion in New Mexico begins	1695: Zumbi, the king of Palmares 5 , killed	1749: Venezuelan cacao growers revolt	1740s-90s: Bourbon reforms tighten Spanish control over American colonies	1761: Yucatec Maya 6 revolt in Yucatán peninsula	1765-66: Uprising in Quito against tax increases	1767: Jesuits expelled from Spanish America	1776: Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata created	1781: Comunero uprising in Colombia	1780-83: Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II 7 in Peru and Upper Peru	1789-99: French Revolution	1791: Massive slave uprising in Haiti, beginning the Haitian revolution 8	1796: Beginning of war between Spain and England	1799: Beginning of Napoleonic Wars	1804: Haiti declares independence	1806, 07: British invasion of the Río de la Plata	1807: Napoleon invades Portugal; royal family flees to Brazil	1808: Napoleon invades Spain; Joseph Bonaparte crowned king of Spain National Period Independence (1810-1825)	1810: Major revolts in Venezuela, New Granada, the Río de la Plata, Chile, and Mexico, to establish juntas to rule in the name of the king. Hidalgo revolt begins in Mexico	1811: Hidalgo 9 captured and killed	1813: Father Morelos, one of Hidalgo \'s officers, champions Mexican independence	1814: Fernando VII recovers Spanish throne	1815: Morelos caught and executed	1816: Argentina declares independence	1817: Chile declares independence	1820: Liberal revolution in Spain and Portugal	1821: Mexico and Peru declare independence	1822: Brazil declares independence	1824: Battle of Ayacucho 10 , final defeat of Spanish forces Postcolonial Blues (1825-1850)	1814-40: Doctor Francia 11 rules in Paraguay	1823: Monroe Doctrine announced by United States	1829-52: Juan Manuel de Rosas 12 rules in Argentina	1831: Pedro I abdicates Brazilian crown and returns to Portugal	1831-40: Turbulent Regency years in Brazil, while Pedro II 13 & 14 is a minor	1834: Santa Anna president of Mexico	1835: Bahian slave conspiracy in Brazil	1830s and 40s: Gunboat diplomacy practiced by England, France, and the U.S.	1836: Texas breaks away from Mexico	1836-39: War of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation with Chile	1841: Avellaneda publishes her anti-slavery novel Sab, banned in Cuba	1845: Texas becomes a U.S. state, provoking war with Mexico	1845: Domingo F. Sarmiento publishes his anti-caudillo treatise Facundo	1846-48: U.S.-Mexican war. U.S. seizes about half of Mexico \'s territory	1847: Beginning of Caste War 15 in Yucatán Progress (1850-1880)	1852: Rosas flees to exile in England	1855: Júarez Law passed in Mexico, kicking off liberal reform	1856: Lerdo Law passed in Mexico, requiring church to sell landholdings	1860: Argentine liberal Bartolomé Mitre becomes president	1861: Colombian caudillo Mosquera initiates liberal rule	1862: French troops invade Mexico	1864: Maximilian installed as Mexican emperor	1865-70: War of the Triple Alliance 16	1867: Maximilian defeated by Benito Juárez	1868: Beginning of the Ten Years War in Cuba; Sab reprinted in newspapers to inspire patriots	1868: Sarmiento named president in Argentina	1879-84: War of the Pacific between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia	1886: Spanish abolish slavery in Cuba	1888: Brazilian abolition 17 ends four centuries of slavery in the Americas	1889: Brazil becomes a republic	1889: Clorinda Matto de Turner publishes Birds without a Nest 18 Neocolonialism (1870-1930)	1870-1900: Miles of railroad tracks in Latin America grew from 2,000 to 59,000; primarily owned by European & U.S. companies	1876: first refrigerator ship takes Argentine beef to Europe	1876: Díaz 19 becomes president of Mexico	1877-1910: Mexican trade expanded by 900%	1880s and 90s: U.S. banana companies 20 blossom in Central America	1890s: U.S. influence in Latin America begins overtaking British and European influence	1897: Brazilian army destroys holy city of Canudos 21	1898: U.S. declares war on Spain in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines	1898: U.S. annexes Hawaiian Islands	1900: Rubber boom 22 underway	1903: U.S. intervention makes way for Panama Canal 23	1905: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine announced	1912-33: U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua 24	1915-34: U.S. military occupation of Haiti	1916-24: U.S. military occupation of the Dominican Republic	1919: Paulina Luisi begins movement for female suffrage 25 in Uruguay	1929: New York Stock Market implodes	1932: Brazilian women allowed to vote; initiative lead by Berta Lutz, who had been advised by Luisi Nationalism (1910-1945)	1903-07: Reformer Battle y Ordóñez 26 becomes president of Uruguay	1910: Beginning of Mexican revolution 27 against Díaz dictatorship	1916: Yrigoyen defeats landed oligarchy in Argentine presidential election	1917: Revolutionary Mexican constitution drafted	1923-28: Rivera paints murals 28 for Mexican Ministry of Education	1924: Haya de la Torre & colleagues found the APRA party in Peru	1929: New York Stock Market crash initiates Great Depression	1930s: Import Substitution Industrialization process gets underway in Latin America	1930: Brazilian Revolution of 1930: Vargas becomes president	1932-35: Chaco War fought between Bolivia and Paraguay	1933: Gilberto Freyre 29 publishes The Masters and the Slaves	1933: Beginning of the Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin America	1934-40: Cárdenas presidency in Mexico	1937: Mexican railroads nationalized	1937: Vargas assumes dictatorial power in Brazil, initiating the Estado Novo	1938: Cárdenas nationalizes Mexican oil	1945: Gabriela Mistral 30 becomes first Latin American to win a Nobel Prize	1948: Colombian populist Gaitán assassinated, triggering the Bogotazo Revolution (1945-1960)	1944-54: Guatemala \'s decade of spring	1945: Crowds in Buenos Aires demand return of Perón	1946: Perón 31 wins presidential election by wide margin	1947: Argentine women granted suffrage	1947: U.S. announces Marshall Plan; Latin American nations sign the Rio Pact	1948: U.S. leads creation of the Organization of American States	1950: Vargas elected president as Brazilian Workers \' Party candidate	1952: Evita dies of cancer; massive show of public grief in Buenos Aires	1952: National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) takes power in Bolivia	1954: Organization of American States issues the Declaration of Caracas	1954: U.S. proxy force ousts Arbenz 32 in Guatemala	1955: Argentine military exiles Perón	1956: Castro \'s first uprising against Batista	1958: Batista flees Cuba 33 on December 31	1960: Brasilia, Brazil \'s new capital, inaugurated	1960: Cuba appropriates U.S. property; U.S. applies trade embargo	1961: Bay of Pigs invasion	1960s: New Song 34 and New Cinema movements	1962: Cuban Missile Crisis in October	1968: Che captured and executed in Bolivia	1968: Conference of Latin American bishops embraces Liberation Theology 35 Reaction (1960-1990)	1961: U.S. announces the creation of the Alliance for Progress	1964: Brazilian military, backed by the U.S., stages coup	1964: Tupamaro guerrilla movement forms in Uruguay	1966: Argentine armed forces establish military government	1967: Uruguayan president declares martial law	1968-74: Hard-line military leaders rule Brazil	1968: Tlatelolco massacre of university students in Mexico City	1970: Popular Unity candidate Salvador Allende wins presidential election in Chile	1973: Armed forces take over in Uruguay	1973: Chilean military, led by Augusto Pinochet, stages bloodiest coup in Latin American history	1975: Dirty War 36 underway in Argentina and Uruguay	1978: Lula leads metalworkers \' strike in Săo Paulo	Late 1970s: mothers and grandmothers begin protesting in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires	1978: Rebellion against Somoza begins in Nicaragua, led by Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN)	1980s: U.S. backs the contras in a decade-long war against the FSLN in Nicaragua and supports Salvadoran army in fight against FMLN	1982: Argentina goes to war with Great Britain over the Falkland Islands	1983: Argentine elections oust military	1984: Civilian president elected in Uruguay	1985: End of military rule in Brazil	1990: Elections in Nicaragua end Sandinista revolution	1992: FMLN 37 signs peace treaty in El Salvador Neoliberalism (1990- )	1990s: Neoliberal presidents and economic policies across the region	1994: North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) 38 implemented	1994: Formation of the Zapatista National Liberation Army to combat NAFTA	1994-95: Mexican economic crisis	1995: MERCOSUR free trade zone created The Present	2001: Argentina defaults on international debts	2002: Lula 39 wins presidential election in Brazil	2004: Uruguayan socialist Vázquez wins presidential election African Background The Aztec Empire The Inca Empire Potosí Quilombos and Palenques Mayan Civilization The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II The Haitian Revolution The Liberators and their Legacy The Liberators and their Legacy Paraguay on the Edge of the Storm Gauchos and Caudillos New World Throne New World Throne Millenarianism Paraguay on the Edge of the Storm Slavery and Abolition Indigenista novels Porfirato and Revolution Banana Republics Millenarianism Amazonia Canal Marines vs. Sandino Womens \' Movements A Model Country Porfirato and Revolution Arts and Literature Race Arts and Literature From Peron to Dirty War Banana Republics Cuban Revolution Nueva Cancion Religion From Peron to Dirty War The Revolutionary Left in El Salvdor NAFTA Brazil \'s Lula Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",25);arrFiles[4]=new Array(5,"timelines_01.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search The Encounter (1492-1600)	1400s: slave trade 1 underway, led by Portuguese	1492: Completion of Reconquest in Iberian Peninsula; arrival of Columbus \'s expedition to Hispaniola (the Indies)	1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral mistakenly lands in Brazil. For the first three decades of the 1500s Portugal ignored Brazil, concentrating on its monopoly trade with the Far East	1519: Spaniards first set foot in Mexico. By 1521 the Spaniards, along with aid from rival indigenous groups and the decimating power of European diseases, had conquered the Aztec empire 2	1530s: Portugal sends settlers, beginning sugar cultivation and destruction of indigenous societies in Brazil. Indigenous populations replaced by slaves brought from Africa	1532: Pizarro captures and executes Atahualpa 3	1540s: Major mining zones in Zacatecas and Potosí 4 opened	1542: Spanish crown issues the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians, limiting encomiendas	1544-49: Rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro against new encomienda laws	1552: Bartolomé de las Casas publishes A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[5]=new Array(6,"timelines_02.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Colonial Crucible (1600-1800)	1680: Pueblo rebellion in New Mexico begins	1695: Zumbi, the king of Palmares 5 , killed	1749: Venezuelan cacao growers revolt	1740s-90s: Bourbon reforms tighten Spanish control over American colonies	1761: Yucatec Maya 6 revolt in Yucatán peninsula	1765-66: Uprising in Quito against tax increases	1767: Jesuits expelled from Spanish America	1776: Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata created	1781: Comunero uprising in Colombia	1780-83: Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II 7 in Peru and Upper Peru	1789-99: French Revolution	1791: Massive slave uprising in Haiti, beginning the Haitian revolution 8	1796: Beginning of war between Spain and England	1799: Beginning of Napoleonic Wars	1804: Haiti declares independence	1806, 07: British invasion of the Río de la Plata	1807: Napoleon invades Portugal; royal family flees to Brazil	1808: Napoleon invades Spain; Joseph Bonaparte crowned king of Spain Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[6]=new Array(7,"timelines_03.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Independence (1810-1825)	1810: Major revolts in Venezuela, New Granada, the Río de la Plata, Chile, and Mexico, to establish juntas to rule in the name of the king. Hidalgo revolt begins in Mexico	1811: Hidalgo 9 captured and killed	1813: Father Morelos, one of Hidalgo \'s officers, champions Mexican independence	1814: Fernando VII recovers Spanish throne	1815: Morelos caught and executed	1816: Argentina declares independence	1817: Chile declares independence	1820: Liberal revolution in Spain and Portugal	1821: Mexico and Peru declare independence	1822: Brazil declares independence	1824: Battle of Ayacucho 10 , final defeat of Spanish forces Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[7]=new Array(8,"timelines_04.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Postcolonial Blues (1825-1850)	1814-40: Doctor Francia 11 rules in Paraguay	1823: Monroe Doctrine announced by United States	1829-52: Juan Manuel de Rosas 12 rules in Argentina	1831: Pedro I abdicates Brazilian crown and returns to Portugal	1831-40: Turbulent Regency years in Brazil, while Pedro II 13 & 14 is a minor	1834: Santa Anna president of Mexico	1835: Bahian slave conspiracy in Brazil	1830s and 40s: Gunboat diplomacy practiced by England, France, and the U.S.	1836: Texas breaks away from Mexico	1836-39: War of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation with Chile	1841: Avellaneda publishes her anti-slavery novel Sab, banned in Cuba	1845: Texas becomes a U.S. state, provoking war with Mexico	1845: Domingo F. Sarmiento publishes his anti-caudillo treatise Facundo	1846-48: U.S.-Mexican war. U.S. seizes about half of Mexico \'s territory	1847: Beginning of Caste War 15 in Yucatán Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[8]=new Array(9,"timelines_05.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Progress (1850-1880)	1852: Rosas flees to exile in England	1855: Júarez Law passed in Mexico, kicking off liberal reform	1856: Lerdo Law passed in Mexico, requiring church to sell landholdings	1860: Argentine liberal Bartolomé Mitre becomes president	1861: Colombian caudillo Mosquera initiates liberal rule	1862: French troops invade Mexico	1864: Maximilian installed as Mexican emperor	1865-70: War of the Triple Alliance 16	1867: Maximilian defeated by Benito Juárez	1868: Beginning of the Ten Years War in Cuba; Sab reprinted in newspapers to inspire patriots	1868: Sarmiento named president in Argentina	1879-84: War of the Pacific between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia	1886: Spanish abolish slavery in Cuba	1888: Brazilian abolition 17 ends four centuries of slavery in the Americas	1889: Brazil becomes a republic	1889: Clorinda Matto de Turner publishes Birds without a Nest 18 Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[9]=new Array(10,"timelines_06.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Neocolonialism (1870-1930)	1870-1900: Miles of railroad tracks in Latin America grew from 2,000 to 59,000; primarily owned by European & U.S. companies	1876: first refrigerator ship takes Argentine beef to Europe	1876: Díaz 19 becomes president of Mexico	1877-1910: Mexican trade expanded by 900%	1880s and 90s: U.S. banana companies 20 blossom in Central America	1890s: U.S. influence in Latin America begins overtaking British and European influence	1897: Brazilian army destroys holy city of Canudos 21	1898: U.S. declares war on Spain in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines	1898: U.S. annexes Hawaiian Islands	1900: Rubber boom 22 underway	1903: U.S. intervention makes way for Panama Canal 23	1905: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine announced	1912-33: U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua 24	1915-34: U.S. military occupation of Haiti	1916-24: U.S. military occupation of the Dominican Republic	1919: Paulina Luisi begins movement for female suffrage 25 in Uruguay	1929: New York Stock Market implodes	1932: Brazilian women allowed to vote; initiative lead by Berta Lutz, who had been advised by Luisi Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[10]=new Array(11,"timelines_07.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Nationalism (1910-1945)	1903-07: Reformer Battle y Ordóñez 26 becomes president of Uruguay	1910: Beginning of Mexican revolution 27 against Díaz dictatorship	1916: Yrigoyen defeats landed oligarchy in Argentine presidential election	1917: Revolutionary Mexican constitution drafted	1923-28: Rivera paints murals 28 for Mexican Ministry of Education	1924: Haya de la Torre & colleagues found the APRA party in Peru	1929: New York Stock Market crash initiates Great Depression	1930s: Import Substitution Industrialization process gets underway in Latin America	1930: Brazilian Revolution of 1930: Vargas becomes president	1932-35: Chaco War fought between Bolivia and Paraguay	1933: Gilberto Freyre 29 publishes The Masters and the Slaves	1933: Beginning of the Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin America	1934-40: Cárdenas presidency in Mexico	1937: Mexican railroads nationalized	1937: Vargas assumes dictatorial power in Brazil, initiating the Estado Novo	1938: Cárdenas nationalizes Mexican oil	1945: Gabriela Mistral 30 becomes first Latin American to win a Nobel Prize	1948: Colombian populist Gaitán assassinated, triggering the Bogotazo Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[11]=new Array(12,"timelines_08.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Revolution (1945-1960)	1944-54: Guatemala \'s decade of spring	1945: Crowds in Buenos Aires demand return of Perón	1946: Perón 31 wins presidential election by wide margin	1947: Argentine women granted suffrage	1947: U.S. announces Marshall Plan; Latin American nations sign the Rio Pact	1948: U.S. leads creation of the Organization of American States	1950: Vargas elected president as Brazilian Workers \' Party candidate	1952: Evita dies of cancer; massive show of public grief in Buenos Aires	1952: National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) takes power in Bolivia	1954: Organization of American States issues the Declaration of Caracas	1954: U.S. proxy force ousts Arbenz 32 in Guatemala	1955: Argentine military exiles Perón	1956: Castro \'s first uprising against Batista	1958: Batista flees Cuba 33 on December 31	1960: Brasilia, Brazil \'s new capital, inaugurated	1960: Cuba appropriates U.S. property; U.S. applies trade embargo	1961: Bay of Pigs invasion	1960s: New Song 34 and New Cinema movements	1962: Cuban Missile Crisis in October	1968: Che captured and executed in Bolivia	1968: Conference of Latin American bishops embraces Liberation Theology 35 Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[12]=new Array(13,"timelines_09.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Reaction (1960-1990)	1961: U.S. announces the creation of the Alliance for Progress	1964: Brazilian military, backed by the U.S., stages coup	1964: Tupamaro guerrilla movement forms in Uruguay	1966: Argentine armed forces establish military government	1967: Uruguayan president declares martial law	1968-74: Hard-line military leaders rule Brazil	1968: Tlatelolco massacre of university students in Mexico City	1970: Popular Unity candidate Salvador Allende wins presidential election in Chile	1973: Armed forces take over in Uruguay	1973: Chilean military, led by Augusto Pinochet, stages bloodiest coup in Latin American history	1975: Dirty War 36 underway in Argentina and Uruguay	1978: Lula leads metalworkers \' strike in Săo Paulo	Late 1970s: mothers and grandmothers begin protesting in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires	1978: Rebellion against Somoza begins in Nicaragua, led by Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN)	1980s: U.S. backs the contras in a decade-long war against the FSLN in Nicaragua and supports Salvadoran army in fight against FMLN	1982: Argentina goes to war with Great Britain over the Falkland Islands	1983: Argentine elections oust military	1984: Civilian president elected in Uruguay	1985: End of military rule in Brazil	1990: Elections in Nicaragua end Sandinista revolution	1992: FMLN 37 signs peace treaty in El Salvador Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[13]=new Array(14,"timelines_10.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Neoliberalism (1990- )	1990s: Neoliberal presidents and economic policies across the region	1994: North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) 38 implemented	1994: Formation of the Zapatista National Liberation Army to combat NAFTA	1994-95: Mexican economic crisis	1995: MERCOSUR free trade zone created Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",8);arrFiles[14]=new Array(15,"timelines_11.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search The Present	2001: Argentina defaults on international debts	2002: Lula 39 wins presidential election in Brazil	2004: Uruguayan socialist Vázquez wins presidential election Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",8);arrFiles[15]=new Array(16,"welcome.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search orn in Blood and Fire presents a quick overview of Latin American history by concentrating on trends affecting most or all countries. However, despite everything they share, each Latin American country is unique. This website provides introductions, maps, research questions, and further readings to help you approach the study of individual Latin American countries.	In addition, it provides forty eight topic areas for undergraduate research and papers (or class presentations), each with its own recommended sources. Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",9);arrFiles[16]=new Array(17,"topics/index.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search TOPICS INDEX	Choose Topic from the below listed Topics. Topic - A Model Country Topic - African Background Topic - Amazonia Topic - Araucanos Topic - Banana Republics Topic - Boom Novels Topic - Brazils Lula Lulas Brazil Topic - Canal Topic - Caste Paintings Topic - Coffee Topic - Cuban Revolution Topic - Current Crisis in Colombia Topic - Disease Topic - Eugenics Topic - European Immigration Topic - From Peron to Dirty War Topic - Gauchos and Caudillos Topic - Haiti Revolution Topic - Honor Topic - Indigenista Novels Topic - Informal Economy Topic - Labor History Topic - Latin American Migration to the United States Topic - Lima and Coastal Peru Topic - Marines vs Sandinistas Topic - Maya Civilization Topic - Millenarianism Topic - NAFTA Topic - National Identities in the Caribbean Topic - Neo-African Religions Topic - New World Throne Topic - Nueva Cancion Topic - Paraguay on Edge of Storm Topic - Potosi Topic - Quilombos and Palenques Topic - Slavery and Abolition Topic - Sugar Topic - The Aztec Empire Topic - The Inca Empire Topic - The Liberators and their Legacy Topic - The Missionary Urge Topic - The Music that Conquered the World Topic - The Porfiriato and the Revolution Topic - The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II Topic - The Revolutionary Left in El Salvador Topic - The Virgin of Guadalupe Topic - US Latinos Topic - Women \'s Movements Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",33);arrFiles[17]=new Array(18,"topics/special.htm","2005-12-12"," New Document ","","","— — Á Á á á ŕ à ä ä ă ã é é č è ë ë í í ę ê ú ú ů ù ü ü ě ì Ń Ñ ń ñ ó ó ň ò ö ö ő õ",1);arrFiles[18]=new Array(19,"topics/topic01.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Nationalism	Uruguay underwent an extraordinary transformation in the early 1900s. From its origins as a buffer state between Argentina and Brazil through the 1870s, Uruguay had been among the most conflictive countries of Latin America, a country dominated by caudillos, gauchos, and frequent civil wars. The extraordinary figure of President José Batlle y Ordóñez changed all that. In his first term in office, 1902 1907, Batlle defeated the last important caudillo challenger to the power of the central government. He then oversaw the creation of a welfare state that became the envy of Latin America, making Uruguay, and most especially Montevideo, one of the hemisphere \'s most literate and most securely middle-class societies. The story does not end there, unfortunately, because some of the reforms proved economically unsustainable. Still, Batlle \'s was among the most remarkable reformist regimes in all of Latin American history. Students approaching this period of Uruguayan history could begin by asking how Batlle came to power and how he maintained political support during his two terms in office, and then explore the benefits of the welfare state he created and the problems that undermined it in the second part of the century. Questions for Analysis and Research: How does Batlle \'s defeat of the last important caudillo on horseback—Aparicio Saravia—fit into the broader history of the Río de la Plata and of Latin America at the turn of the century? What characterized the welfare state that Batlle successfully created, and what institutions helped make Uruguay a middle-class society and the most literate country in Latin America? The reforms of the early 1900s resulted in widespread social benefits. What factors later led to the decline of Uruguay \'s status as a model country? Bibliography:	Two books by Milton Vanger chronicle the presidencies of Batlle and the transformations they accomplished, making Uruguay a model country. José Batlle y Ordóñez of Uruguay: The Creator of His Times, 1902 1907. Cambridge, MA:	Harvard University Press, 1963. The Model Country: José Batlle y Ordeñez of Uruguay, 1907 1915. Hanover, NH: Published	for Brandeis University Press by University Press of New England, 1980. Other Resources: Uruguay Gauchos and Caudillos Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",13);arrFiles[19]=new Array(20,"topics/topic02.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Independence; Postcolonial Blues	Only in recent years have Latin American historians begun to include much African background. Africa is enormous and culturally complex, and accurate generalizations about it are hard to make. But, because African history intersects Latin American history mostly at one point—the slave trade—students can direct their attention to the major areas from which African slaves began their trans-Atlantic journeys. Earliest and probably most important, overall, was the West African coast, from Senegal to Nigeria. Next in order and importance came the western part of Central Africa, today Congo and Angola, where the Portuguese had extended their influence into the interior in alliance with African monarchs who had converted to Christianity. The last area to produce enslaved human cargos was Mozambique, which, like Angola, retains Portuguese as its national language today. Because of Portugal \'s central role in the slave trade, Portuguese archives have allowed historians the best look so far at the African background of Latin American history. Note that Spain did not have a large presence in the slave trade. Among African countries today, Spanish is spoken only in tiny Equatorial Guinea. Students focusing on African background should consider patterns of the slave trade to Latin America, how African social structures and customs were preserved in the New World, and how slave culture became the foundation for new religious practices, music and dance, a mixing of genes, and so on—all with an African heritage. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What role did Africans play in capturing slaves for trade with Europeans? How did slavery in Africa differ from slavery in the New World? What did slaves bring with them to the New World, and what new religious traditions, social structures, and blending of cultures (not to mention gene pools) emerged out of their contact with Indians, other slaves, and people of European descent in Latin America? In addition to race, where can African background be observed in Latin America today? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Andrews, George Reid. Afro-Latin America, 1800—2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.	Hot off the press, Andrews \' history of the African diaspora in Latin America and of Latin Americans of African descent is well-written and should be a starting point for students interested in Latin America \'s African background.	Davidson, Basil. The African Slave Trade, rev. and enlg. ed. Boston: Little, Brown and	Company, 1980.	Davidson \'s account of the African slave trade is a readable introduction to the social organization of the main areas where trading occurred and to the impact of slave trading on Africa.	** ________. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. London: Longman,	for Brandeis University Press by University 1998.	Written for the nonspecialist, this book is helpful for understanding the African background of Latin America in the context of African history	** Klein, Herbert S. The Atlantic Slave Trade. New York: Cambridge University Press,	1999.	Klein \'s is one of the best surveys available on the slave trade, with several chapters that will serve students well as an introduction to Latin America \'s African background.	Sweet, James H. Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-	Portuguese World, 1441—1770. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2003.	Sweet \'s study is a scholarly treatment, though students will find it an interesting introduction to the connections between Africa and the Portuguese-speaking world.	Telles, Edward E. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil.	Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.	The first chapter of this monograph offers a concise overview of race in Brazilian history, beginning with African connections during the colonial period.	** Thornton, John. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400 1680, 2nd	ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.	Widely used as a text on the Atlantic World, Thornton \'s study is a good introduction to the colonial connections between Africa and America. Other Resources: Slavery and Abolition Eugenics Quilombos and Palenques Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[20]=new Array(21,"topics/topic03.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Progress; Neocolonialism; Neoliberalism	Alarm about the destruction of the world \'s remaining rainforests sounded loudly in the 1980s. The rate of cutting and burning seemed to decline in the 1990s, but there was no reason to believe that the ultimate threat of destruction had diminished. The famous (and very real) biodiversity of rainforest environments did not become less precious, but the issue lost novelty. Overall, concern about the cutting down of rainforests was merely crowded out of the news by other environmental concerns, such as global warming. However, in addition to its other deleterious effects, such as permanent soil degradation and reduction in biodiversity, the destruction of rainforest also contributes to global warming because burning the trees, the destiny of most of those that are cut, produces greenhouse gases. While some areas of rainforest remain in Asia, Africa, and Central America, Amazonia is far and away the largest expanse of tropical rainforest in the world. The heart of Amazonia lies in Brazil, but Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela all have Amazonian regions. A paper on Amazonia should include a basic understanding of rainforest biodiversity, as well as the impact of various sorts of developmental strategies: logging, ranching, streambed mining, dam building, and agricultural colonies. Finally, the people of Amazonia include, along with those who have migrated from elsewhere in search of a better life, indigenous people, many of whom now live on reservations. Questions for Research and Analysis: What are the current daily and monthly figures on the acreage cut or burned in Amazonia? What part does the Amazonian rainforst play in the world climate? What sorts of debates surround the question of rainforest destruction in Brazil? How have indigenous people of the region been affected? Many groups conflict over preserving or developing Amazonia: indigenous inhabitants of the rainforest, multinational corporations, large-scale cattlemen, proponents of biodiversity, state agencies, miners, and settlers from other parts of Brazil, to name a few. Pick several groups and craft a short imaginary debate among them. Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bates, Henry Walter. The Naturalist on the River Amazon. New York: Penguin Books, 1989	First published in 1863, this account of travels in Amazonia is fascinating for its descriptions of both people and the natural environment.	** Caufield, Catherine. In the Rainforest. New York: Knopf, 1985. In the Rainforest provides a great intro to the broad contours of the issues.	** De Onís, Juan. The Green Cathedral: Sustainable Development of Amazonia. New York:	Oxford University Press, 1992.	Students interested in the complex debates of sustainable development in Amazonia, engaged by multiple interest groups, will want to start with this book.	** Diacon, Todd A. Stringing Together a Nation: Cándido Mariano Da Silva Rondon and	the Construction of a Modern Brazil, 1906 1930. Durham, NC: Duke University	Press, 2004.	A scholarly history (but an enjoyable narrative) of the telegraph lines the Rondon Commission established in Brazil in the early 1900s, linking parts of Amazonia with other areas of Brazil in hopes of unifying diverse communities.	Little, Paul E. Amazonia: Territorial Struggles on Perennial Frontiers. Baltimore: The Johns	Hopkins University Press, 2001.	Little combines environmental history and political ecology to look at Amazonia throughout the twentieth century, concentrating on notions of the frontier and territoriality.	** Margolis, Mac. The Last New World: The Conquest of the Amazon Frontier. New York:	Norton, 1992.	Inspired by a trip through Amazonia, Margolis provides a journalistic account of the history of Amazonia, its inhabitants and rich biosphere, and human attempts to tame and tap the resources of the forest.	** Moran, Emilio F. Through Amazonian Eyes: The Human Ecology of Amazonian	Populations. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1993.	Moran provides a succinct overview of the communities that presently live in Amazonia, as well as a look at the biodiversity of the forest and forms of development that took place in the late twentieth century.	Revkin, Andrew. The Burning Season: The Murder of Chico Mendes and the Fight for the	Amazon Rain Forest. Washington, DC: Shearwater Books, 2004.	Revkin details the struggle waged by the Amazonian rubber tapper Chico Mendes to involve the Brazilian government in sustainable development programs opposed by ranchers.	Sponsel, Leslie E., ed. Indigenous Peoples and the Future of Amazonia: An Ecological	Anthropology of an Endangered World. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995.	A collection of anthropological studies that range from historical interpretations of biodiversity to studies of human adaptation in Amazonia. Other Resources: Brazil Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[21]=new Array(22,"topics/topic04.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues; Progress; Neocolonialism	South America \'s southern cone had indigenous populations when the Spanish arrived. Because they were not sedentary, however, colonization marginalized the indigenous people of the far south rather than incorporating them. The Mapuches of Chile, famous in the Spanish-speaking world since the Spanish poet Alonzo de Ercilla chronicled the Spanish encounter with them in the 1500s, were one such group. The Tehuelches, a related group, lived across the Andes in Argentina. In fact, the name Araucanos refers to a culture that spanned the rugged, snow-bound Andes of the far south. The Araucanos expanded their trans-Andean influence in the early 1800s under the leadership of Calfurucá, who dealt with the caudillo Rosas. The Argentine frontier in the 1860s and 1870s was in some ways similar to the Great Plains of the United States at the same time, with cavalry forces manning forts against mounted indigenous war parties. In Chile, the Araucano frontier was long stabilized along the Bio Bio River. Both Argentina and Chile finally subjugated Araucano populations militarily at the end of the nineteenth century. Today, the modern Araucanos, like the Mapuches, remain on the margins of national life. A paper on Araucanos could look at key moments of social transition, first through the encounter with Spaniards during the colonial period, then with the expansion of the frontier in Argentina and Chile, and lastly during the twentieth century. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did the encounter between Mapuches and Spaniards during the colonial period differ from that of other indigenous inhabitants of the Andes farther north? How did Mapuche social structure affect their relationship and the reaction of Spaniards? How did the Argentine and Chilean states justify the expansion—through military force—of the frontier in Indian territory in the nineteenth century? How does this story fit into the larger context of Latin American history during the neocolonial moment? Araucano populations remain on the edges of national life today, but they constitute an important image in the national imagination of Chile especially. What part have they played in the construction of Chilean identity? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Faron, Louis C. Hawks of the Sun: Mapuche Morality and Its Ritual Attributes. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1964.	This monography will be of interest to students exploring themes like Mapuche beliefs in the supernatural, death and fertility rites, and symbolic values in Mapuche society.	** ________. The Mapuche Indians of Chile. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New	York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.	Though dated, this book is a concise synthetic overview of Mapuche society.	Hilger, M. Inez. Huenun Ñamku: An Araucanian Indian of the Andes Remembers the Past.	Preface by Margaret Mead. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966.	Hilger presents an interesting firsthand account of Araucanian ways of life as they were related to her by an older Araucanian.	** Jones, Kristine L. Calfucurá and Namuncurá: Nation Builders of the Pampas. In Ewell	and Judith Ewell and William H. Beezley, eds., The Human Tradition in Latin	America: The Nineteenth Century. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1989.	175 86.	** Mansilla, Lucio V. An Expedition to the Ranquel Indians. Translated by Mark McCaffrey.	Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.	Students will enjoy this engaging and humorous account of travels to the lands of the Ranquel Indians on the frontier in Argentina, conversations with Ranquel leaders, and observations of Ranquel society. Lucio Mansilla was a relative of Rosas. Other Resources: Chile Argentina Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[22]=new Array(23,"topics/topic05.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Revolution; Reaction	The phrase banana republic, now commonly understood by U.S. young people as a brand of clothing, was coined to disparage small Central American countries, countries that served virtually as production platforms for banana-exporting enterprises like the United Fruit Company. The United Fruit Company was formed by U.S. businessmen operating in various Central American countries around 1900. As a result, the banana companies were among the first multinational corporations, and the governments of tiny, impoverished Central American countries were no match for them. The first half of the twentieth century was the apogee of the great fruit companies \' power in Central America. A paper on their operations might well concentrate on the case of Honduras, but could also include any country in the region, except for Panama and El Salvador. Most historians believe that the 1954 U.S. intervention in Guatemala occurred in part because of claims made by the United Fruit Company against the nationalist Arbenz government. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What types of labor practices took place on banana plantations? What were the living quarters of the masters—U.S. employees and managers—like? In effect, the expansion of large banana companies in tropical America was a manifestation of globalization at the beginning of the twentieth century. How did they influence U.S. policy in Central America? What were some of the social and environmental consequences of the banana companies \' presence? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bucheli, Marcelo. Bananas and Business: The United Fruit Company in Colombia, 1899 2000. New York: New York University Press, 2005.	Bucheli \'s recently published scholarly study examines the operations of United Fruit in Colombia.	Chomsky, Aviva. West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica,	1870 1940. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996.	Dosal, Paul J. Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in	Guatemala, 1899 1944. Wilmington, DE: 1993.	Dosal explores the practices of United Fruit in Guatemala prior to the Guatemalan revolution and the 1954 coup.	** Galeano, Eduardo. Century of Wind. Vol. 3, Memory of Fire. Translated by Cedric	Belfrage. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.	This volume of Galeano \'s trilogy has gripping vignettes on banana republics, the United Fruit Company, and U.S. intervention in Central America.	** Schlesinger, Stephen, and Stephen Kinzer. Bitter Fruit: The Story of the American Coup	in Guatemala, enlg. ed. With an introduction by John H. Coatsworth and a foreword	by Richard A. Nuccio. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and the David	Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, 1999. Bitter Fruit is an engaging narrative of the 1954 U.S. intervention by proxy that overthrew Guatemala \'s democratically elected government.	Striffler, Steve. In the Shadows of State and Capital: The United Fruit Company, Popular	Struggle, and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador, 1900 1995. Durham, NC: Duke	University Press, 2002.	** ________, and Mark Moberg, eds. Banana Wars: Power, Production, and History in the	Americas. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.	This collection of scholarly essays will introduce students to the history of the American banana trade, dating back to the 1800s, as well as to the many polemics surrounding bananas, U.S. policy in Latin America, and plantation labor in the twentieth century. Other Resources: Costa Rica Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Labor History Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[23]=new Array(24,"topics/topic06.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Reaction	Latin America \'s literary distinctions began early in the twentieth century, but the 1960s and 1970s brought unprecedented international prestige to various novelists and short-story writers of the region. They built on the literary innovations of Jorge Luis Borges, Alejo Carpentier, and Juan Rulfo, talented writers of the 1940s and \'50s. The result was a publishing phenomenon, driven in part by the engaging narratives crafted by writers like Carlos Fuentes, Julio Cortázar, José Donoso, and, among others, Nobel Laureate Gabriel García Márquez. Boom novels, though, were also a marketing success of big publishers. The writers of the boom, a term used to refer to their generation as much as the literary production of Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s, were politically committed, and many wrote from exile. Students interested in boom novels should explore the political context in which the novels were written. A paper might consider one author \'s background and the themes and problems that prevail in a novel or selection of stories. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What is the value of literature as a primary source for the study of history? What insights into the past can novels provide that other types of primary sources cannot? What led to the international recognition of Latin American writers in the 1960s and 1970s, and why was this attention so late in coming in the U.S. and Europe? Playful narrative style, seemingly apolitical subjects, and what has been called magic realism can make it difficult to see links between boom novels and the moments of revolution and reaction in Latin America. Where can you identify such links? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Cortázar, Julio. Hopscotch . Translated by Gregory Rabassa. New York: Pantheon, 1966. Hopscotch is Cortázar \'s most well-known novel. It is somewhat lengthy, but the narrative is fast-paced.	Donoso, José. The Boom in Spanish American Literature: A Personal History. Translated by	Gregory Kolovakos. New York: Columbia University Press, Center for Inter-	American Relations, 1977.	This short book provides students with an insider \'s perspective of the boom and a glimpse into the thinking of one of the movement \'s key figures.	Franco, Jean. An Introduction to Spanish-American Literature, 3rd ed. Cambridge:	Cambridge University Press, 1994.	The last chapter of this work in literary history lays out the literary context in which boom novels were published.	** García Márquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Translated by Gregory	Rabassa. New York: Perennial Classics, 1998.	First published in 1967, García Márquez \'s One Hundred Years of Solitude is one of the most widely known and read novels outside of Latin America, and, as one that fueled the boom, it is a good starting point for students interested in the broad trends of this literary movement.	Ortega, Julio, and Carlos Fuentes, eds. The Picador Book of Latin American Stories. London:	Picador, 1998.	This anthology contains short stories by some of the major novel writers of the boom—Julio Cortázar, Juan Rulfo, and Gabriel García Márquez, among others.	Vargas Llosa, Mario. The Time of the Hero. Translated by Lysander Kemp. New York:	Grove Press, 1966.	Williams, Raymond Leslie. The Boom Twenty Years Later: An Interview with Mario	Vargas Llosa. Latin American Literary Review 15, no. 29 (1987): 201 206. Other Resources: Indigenista Novels Arts and Literature Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[24]=new Array(25,"topics/topic07.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neoliberalism	Brazil \'s military rule 1964 1985 is the logical place to begin thinking about contemporary Brazil and its current president, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, nick-named (and generally known to Brazilians as) Lula. Lula rose to national prominence in the late 1970s as a labor leader able to challenge the country \'s military rulers. When those rulers withdrew their authoritarian control in the 1980s, Lula became the perennial presidential candidate of the Labor Party (the Partido dos Trabalhadores, or PT), but the prevailing neoliberalism of the 1990s gave the PT a stiff headwind. Finally, in 2002, Lula won a decisive electoral victory. But the high hopes of the new president \'s supporters seemed destined to collide with the narrow economic confines within which Lula was forced to maneuver. In addition, the PT itself, in power nationally for the first time, underwent new strains and experienced considerable internal divisions. There was an initial flight of capital, but by 2005 it had begun to return. This is a story still in progress. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Lula \'s rise to prominence in the 1970s was closely connected to his role as a labor leader and the history of labor in the region of São Paulo. How was the PT able to extend its support beyond organized labor? Lula \'s presidential victory in 2002 suggested that the neoliberal wave of the 1990s is declining in Brazil. What economic policies established by Lula \'s neoliberal predecessors have restricted the PT \'s range of action? Presidents are symbolic figures as much as they are political actors. Considered in the context of Brazilian history since the 1970s, what does the election of Lula signify? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Baiocchi, Gainpaolo, ed. Radicals in Power: The Workers \' Party (PT) and Experiments in Urban Democracy in Brazil. London, New York: Zed Books, 2003.	Baiocchi provides a look at PT innovations in local government.	Branford, Sue, and Bernardo Kucinski. Brazil: Carnival of the Oppressed. Lula and the	Brazilian Workers \' Party. London: Latin American Bureau, 1995.	Branford and Kucinski present a concise overview of the PT, with profiles of key party players.	Branford, Sue, and Bernardo Kucinski, with Hilary Wainwright. Politics Transformed: Lula	and the Workers \' Party of Brazil. London, New York: Latin American Bureau, New	Press, 2003.	This recent book provides a journalistic treatment of today \'s PT.	** Keck, Margaret E. The Workers Party and Democratization in Brazil. New Haven: Yale	University Press, 1992.	Keck \'s study is a good overview of the foundation and early trajectory of the PT.	Nylen, William R. Participatory Democracy Versus Elitist Democracy: Lessons from Brazil	New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.	Like Baiocchi, Nylen explores the PT at the local-government level.	** Sader, Emir, and Ken Silverstein. Without Fear of Being Happy: Lula, the Workers Party	and Brazil. London: Verso, 1991.	Sader and Silverstein provide a concise history of the PT, from its beginnings up to the early 1990s. An interview with Lula is also included.	** Medea Benjamin, Maisa Mendonça, and Benedita da Silva. Benedita da Silva: An Afro-	Brazilian Woman \'s Story of Politics and Love. Oakland, CA: The Institute for Food	and Development Policy, 1997.	Benedita, Benjamin, and Mendonça offer an English-language account of one of the PT \'s most compelling political personalities.	Wright, Angus, and Wendy Wolford. To Inherit the Earth: The Landless Movement and the	Struggle for a New Brazil. Oakland, CA: Food First Books, 2003. Other Resources: Brazil Labor History Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[25]=new Array(26,"topics/topic08.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism	Canals rank among the greatest construction projects in world history, and the Panama Canal may be the most spectacular of all. Most notable is its extensive series of locks that allows it to traverse the isthmus of Panama, traveling vertically 85 feet in the steep but narrow 40 miles that separate the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The narrowness of the isthmus raised speculations about a Panama canal for a century before it was actually built. Despite the technical difficulties of building an inter-oceanic canal, the shortcuts achieved were enormous, some 3,000 miles to be exact, from New York to Japan, and around 7,400 miles from Ecuador to New York. In 1850, Great Britain and the United States agreed to share control over a hypothetical canal, but it was French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the world \'s other great inter-oceanic canal, the Suez Canal, who made the first attempt in the early 1880s. The French attempt failed when yellow fever decimated the workforce, and control over that disease constituted a key to the successful U.S. construction of the canal in the years 1904—1914. A paper on the Panama Canal will naturally want to explore this engineering feat, but it should not neglect to include the troubled political context in which the canal was created and for which the United States later formally apologized. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Prior to the construction of the canal, if the long trip around Cape Horn was to be avoided, travel between Europe and the western coast of South America required a combination of sea routes and arduous overland treks in Panama. This is how most of the silver mined in Bolivia made its way back into royal coffers in Spain. Imagine you are one of the people making this trip during the colonial period. Describe the voyage, paying careful attention to things like your port of departure or arrival in South America, the hike over Central America, navigation through the Caribbean, and so on. In addition to being one of the greatest construction projects in world history, the building of the Panama Canal was among the most labor-intensive. Who were the workers? How many people worked on the project from start to finish? How many lost their lives to disease or the work? How did the canal fit into a wider picture of U.S. policy in the Caribbean region? What was the United States \' role in separating Panama from Colombia? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Comisón del Canal de Panamá. El Canal de Panama: Edición especial conmemorativa del traspaso del Canal de Panamá / The Panama Canal: Transfer of the Panama Canal	Special Commemorative Edition. Translated by Lesley Aschcroft. Panamá: Ediciones	Balboa, 1999.	This commemorative volume has an introduction to the canal, how it operates, and the ecology of the canal \'s watershed. It also has excellent photographs of canal construction and operation.	Findling, John E. Close Neighbors, Distant Friends: United States—Central American Relations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1987.	Findling provides a concise overview to the political context in which the canal was built, looking at U.S. Central American relations from 1800 1980.	** LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America, 2nd ed.	New York: Norton, 1993.	The introduction and the first two chapters of Inevitable Revolutions offer an appropriate introduction to the U.S. in Central America and the moment in which the canal was built.	________. The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective, rev. ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1989.	In this book LaFeber surveys the political history of the canal, beginning with the first ideas of an inter-oceanic canal during the colonial period, and then concentrating on major political figures and how they helped shape the canal \'s history.	** LaRosa, Michael, and Germán R. Mejía, eds. The United States Discovers Panama: The	Writings of Soldiers, Scholars, Scientists, and Scoundrels, 1850 1905.	Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004.	This recently published, valuable collection of primary sources will allow students to explore U.S. attitudes toward Panama and the idea of an isthmian canala in the late 1800s.	** Lindsay-Poland, John. Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama.	Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003. Emperors in the Jungle is an engaging look at U.S. intervention in Panama in the late 1800s and throughout the twentieth century. Students interested in this aspect of the canal would do well to begin with this recent book.	Major, John. The Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903 1979. New	York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.	Major provides a scholarly treatment of U.S. Panamanian relations in the twentieth century, revolving around the canal.	** McCullough, David. The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal,	1870 1914. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977.	Though older and somewhat lengthy, McCullough \'s well-written history of the canal is the most complete. Other Resources: Panama Colombia Labor History Disease Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[26]=new Array(27,"topics/topic09.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible	Colonial Latin America had an overt caste system whereby an individual \'s social identity as white, indigenous, African, or mixed was officially assigned in the baptismal register. In fact, the possibilities were many more than these four. Usage varied in different parts of colonial Latin America, and the system became more complex over time. From Spanish and Indian, Mestizo . From Spanish and Black, Mulatto . Such are the titles of paintings that were commissioned by colonial functionaries in the 1700s, often as souvenirs to be sent back to Spain, and frequently assembled in complete sets that were supposed to explore all the possible combinations. Caste paintings were partly reflections of colonial realities—that is, the fact that gene pools were merging—and partly an attempt to organize the imperial grip on those realities. Categorizing individuals in caste terms was important to colonial administration because different castes had different privileges and obligations. Some crosses were denigrated with animal names like Lobo (Wolf) and Coyote . One, Moorish , was a Spanish attempt to relate American realities to Spanish historical experience. While the number of sixteen theoretical caste categories is often represented, no more than four or five were commonly applied in practice. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Representing the differences implicit in the caste system was one of many ways to let people know where they stood on the social hierarchy. In the caste paintings you have been able to observe, what are other signs or marks represented that make evident caste differences? The caste system as a form of social hierarchy was present throughout colonial Latin America. What were some ways in which social hierarchy was established, and did these change after independence? In the U.S. today, racial diversity is much more openly celebrated than it was say around 1900. Yet of the hundreds of different ethnic backgrounds, only a handful of these are officially recognized categories people can check on census forms, university applications, and so on. The simple point is that race is an idea or set of ideas than can be manipulated to serve a certain purpose or end. This is particularly true when it comes to the question of who makes up a nation or who has the right to be a citizen of a nation. After thinking briefly about how race has played a part in defining who and what the U.S. is made of, reflect on how race was used in nineteenth-century Latin America to justify and organize the construction of new nations following the wars of independence. Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Carrera, Magali Marie. Imagining Identity in New Spain: Race, Lineage, and the Colonial Body in Portraiture and Casta Paintings. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.	Farmer, John A., and Ilona Katzew, eds. New World Orders: Casta Painting and Colonial Latin	America. New York: Americas Society, 1996.	** Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. New Haven:	Yale University Press, 2004.	This study should be consulted by any student exploring caste paintings. Its narrative is clear and concise, and it has beautiful color illustrations of caste paintings. Other Resources: Mexico Slavery and Abolition African Background Race Arts and Literature Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[27]=new Array(28,"topics/topic10.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Neoliberalism	Coffee has historically been one of Latin America \'s most widespread principal export crops. For more than a century, it was a mainstay in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. Coffee originated apparently in East Africa. It was transferred to Latin America in the late 1700s. Brazil was the hemisphere \'s pioneer producer in the early 1800s. Most Latin American coffee producers began to cultivate the crop toward the end of that century, when the international market for coffee expanded enormously, chiefly because of rising standards of living in Europe and the United States. By the mid 1900s, coffee cultivation was spreading to Africa and Asia, increasing competition for Latin American producers. Coffee trade and production is therefore an excellent study in the rise of global commodity markets. A paper on coffee in Latin American history can compare the results of coffee cultivation in various countries. In some places, such as Brazil and Colombia, coffee production proved to be a steppingstone to industrialization, but the impact of the crop has been quite variable. Coffee has been cultivated by slaves on large plantations and also by smallholders on family farms. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: As a principal export crop in many Latin American countries, coffee has had a major impact on economies. Coffee cultivation in El Salvador in the 1800s, for example, was a success story, but it was followed and overshadowed by later manifestations of the negative impacts of plantation agriculture. What are other examples of the different impacts coffee has had on economies around Latin America since the mid 1800s? Different patterns of coffee cultivation resulted in a variety of salient social consequences. Compare these patterns and consequences in Brazil, Colombia, and Guatemala. In the last ten years in the U.S., the number of cafés and coffee drinks has grown tremendously, as has their popularity. In this same period the debate on the fair trade of coffee as a commodity on the world market, which aims to pay coffee workers a fair price for their harvest and a fair wage for their work, has gained attention. Are you aware of or do you drink fairly traded coffee? How does the price of coffee-fairly traded or not-fit into the history of coffee in Latin America and illustrate the recognition of the historical impact of coffee cultivation? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bergad, Laird W. Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in Nineteenth-Century Puerto	Rico. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.	Bergad presents a scholarly take on the history of coffee in Puerto Rico, suitable for students interested in the history of coffee in the Caribbean or those who want to narrow their focus to one country case.	Cambranes, J. C. Coffee and Peasants: The Origins of the Modern Plantation Economy in	Guatemala, 1853 1897. Stockholm: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1985.	** Clarence-Smith, William Gervase, and Steven Topik, eds. The Global Coffee Economy in	Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500 1989. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.	In this overview of the history of coffee, students will find multiple essays dealing with Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Mexico. There are also a handful of useful appendices with historical statistics on world coffee production.	** Dean, Warren. Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System, 1820 1920. Stanford: Stanford	University Press, 1976.	Though slightly dated, this well-written history of coffee plantations near São Paulo introduces students to key themes of coffee cultivation, like land expropriation, slave labor, and, following abolition, the development of a wage labor system built around colonization schemes.	Font, Mauricio A. Coffee, Contention, and Change in the Making of Modern Brazil. Oxford:	Basil Blackwell, 1990.	Font explores the intersection of economics, politics, and social change in their relationship to coffee cultivation in São Paulo during the early 1900s.	** Holloway, Thomas H. Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in São Paulo, 1886	1934. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1980.	Holloway provides a readable history of coffee in Brazil, focusing on the colonization schemes that brought immigrants to work the land, and highlighting the impacts coffee had on social relations and the Brazilian economy.	Paige, Jeffery M. Coffee and Power: Revolution and the Rise of Democracy in Central	America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.	Paige traces the development of coffee elites and class divisions that grew out of coffee cultivation in Central America. The first two chapters are the most useful for students seeking a general overview of coffee in the region in the twentieth century.	** Palacios, Marco. Coffee in Colombia, 1850 1970: An Economic, Social, and Political	History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.	Palacios offers the most complete historical tour of coffee in Colombia. Students interested in the history of Colombia and of coffee in Colombia would do well to begin with this book.	Pendergrast, Mark. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our	World. New York: Basic Books, 1999.	Pendergrast provides a readable, journalistic account of the history of coffee.	Stein, Stanley J. Vassouras, A Brazilian Coffee County, 1850 1900: The Roles of Planter and	Slave in a Plantation Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.	Topik, Steven C., and Allen Wells, eds. The Second Conquest of Latin America: Coffee,	Henequen, and Oil During the Export Boom, 1850 1930. Austin: University of Texas	Press, Institute of Latin American Studies, 1998.	** Williams, Robert G. States and Social Evolution: Coffee and the Rise of National	Governments in Central America. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,	1994.	Williams \'s study is the most complete historical portrait in English of coffee in Central America. Other Resources: Brazil Colombia Costa Rica Dominican Republic El Salvador Nicaragua Guatemala Mexico Venezuela Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",19);arrFiles[28]=new Array(29,"topics/topic11.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Revolution; Reaction	The Cuban Revolution has been the most radical, durable, and significant in the history of Latin America. A paper on the Cuban Revolution should not limit itself to the period of military insurrection before 1959. Instead, the students should approach the Cuban Revolution as an ongoing project of social engineering that, between 1959 and 1989, transformed Cuban society on a socialist model. After 1989, with the fall of Cuba \'s Communist allies in Europe, the Revolution entered a period of deterioration and retrenchment, which the Castro regime has optimistically dubbed the special period. A paper on the Cuban Revolution might well concentrate on Fidel Castro, who has led the Revolution since the beginning of its military phase in the mid 1950s. It is, in fact, almost impossible to imagine the Cuban Revolution without Fidel Castro running it, precisely the reason why such a big question mark now hangs over the island as the aging dictator moves inexorably toward immortality. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: In contrast to the way the Revolution is seen in the U.S.—through the Cold War lens as a movement associated with dangerous radicals—the Revolution is seen in a positive light by many Latin Americans. Why has the Cuban Revolution been a source of inspiration in Latin America? What factors shaped the U.S. government \'s position on the Revolution? What did the revolutionary project achieve from 1959 to 1989? What types of primary and secondary sources could be used to explore this question more in depth? The way our parents think about politics and how the world works often colors our initial understanding of such things, or our world view. How do your family members, especially those of older generations, think about Fidel Castro, and how has that affected your own understanding of the Cuban Revolution? Do you share similar ideas or oppose them, and why? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Castañeda, Jorge G. Compañero: The Life and Death of Che Guevara . Translated by Marina Castañeda. New York: Knopf, 1997.	Castañeda \'s is one of a handful of recent biographies of the central revolutionary figure of Guevara. It would complement a reading of Guevara \'s political writings or his Motorcycle Diaries.	** Guillermoprieto, Alma. Dancing with Cuba: A Memoir of the Revolution. Translated by	Esther Allen. New York: Pantheon Books, 2004.	Leonard, Thomas M. Castro and the Cuban Revolution. Greenwood Press Guides to Historic	Events of the Twentieth Century. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.	This book offers a concise overview of the military insurrection of the 1950s, a look at the key figures of the Cuban revolution, and a brief selection of primary sources of the revolution.	Lievesley, Geraldine. The Cuban Revolution: Past, Present and Future Perspectives. New	York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.	Paterson, Thomas G. Contesting Castro: The United States and the Triumph of the Cuban	Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Contesting Castro is a scholarly treatment of the period of military insurrection in the 1950s.	Pérez, Jr., Louis A. Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1995.	The last three chapters of Pérez \'s general history of Cuba present the story of the origins of the Revolution and socialist Cuba since 1959.	** Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. The Cuban Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.	Pérez-Stable provides a sound and compact overview of the revolution in historical perspective.	** Sweig, Julia E. Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground.	This book recounts the history of one group of insurgents led by Castro in order to provide a new interpretation of how the military phase of the revolution was successful. Other Resources: Slavery and Abolition Eugenics Quilombos and Palenques -- Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[29]=new Array(30,"topics/topic12.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Revolution; Reaction; Neoliberalism	Today, because of decades of internal turmoil, Colombia accounts for more immigrants to the United States than does any other South American country. The current crisis in Colombia has antecedents that go back at least to the 1950s. In fact, a paper on the topic should begin its overview with the Bogotazo riot of 1948. It should include consideration of the four principal groups currently under arms: the guerrillas, the drug mafias, the paramilitaries, and of course, the national army. (A fifth armed group, peasant militias to cooperate with the army, is now being formed by the government.) The course of intermittent negotiations between the government, the guerrillas, and more recently, the paramilitaries, also deserves scrutiny. Equally deserving of scrutiny is the U.S. military aid project known as Plan Colombia that has made Colombia among the largest recipients of US aid in the world. In essence, Plan Colombia has dovetailed with Colombian president Alvaro Uribe \'s focus on military victory over the guerrillas, a work still in progress, and one not without its bitter cost. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did Colombia \'s guerrilla armies form, and how have they changed during half a century of fighting? The principal market for the Colombian drug trade has always been in the United States, where consumers have always been willing to pay top dollar for a quality product. Explore the evolution of the drug trade, with attention to its sources and market outside of Colombia. U.S. intervention in Colombia goes back to 1903, with the forced separation of Panama to make way for the U.S. construction of the canal. Intervention today is of a different kind under Plan Colombia. What are the motivations behind this plan, and what have been its social, economic, and political consequences felt by Colombians thus far? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Movie suggestion: Maria Full of Grace, directed by Joshua Marston.	** Braun, Herbert. Our Guerrillas, Our Sidewalks: A Journey into the Violence of Colombia,	2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2003.	Braun \'s engaging account of a family member kidnapped in Colombia, from the moment of disappearance, through terror and negotiations, to release, serves as an illuminating guide to the Colombian crisis.	Dudley, Steven S. Walking Ghosts: Murder and Guerrilla Politics in Colombia. London:	Routledge, 2004.	Dudley \'s overview of the crisis chronicles political aspects since the 1980s.	Duzán, María Jimena. Death Beat: A Colombian Journalist \'s Life Inside the Cocaine Wars.	** García Márquez, Gabriel. News of a Kidnapping. Translated by Edith Grossman. New York: Knopf, 1997.	As the title suggests, this fast past narrative by one of Latin America \'s most celebrated writers relates stories of victims of kidnapping, a strategy used by multiple groups.	** Kirk, Robin. More Terrible Than Death: Massacres, Drugs, and America \'s War in	Colombia. New York: Public Affairs, 2003.	Vivid snapshots of life on the edge in contemporary Colombia appear in one human rights worker \'s struggle to make a difference.	Molano, Alfredo. Loyal Soldiers in the Cocaine Kingdom: Tales of Drugs, Mules, and	Gunmen. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.	This recent narrative explores one group currently under arms-drug mafias.	** Safford, Frank and Marco Palacios. Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society. New	York: Oxford University Press, 2002.	This recent addition to the Oxford series of Latin American histories will help students get a hold on the roots of the crisis. Other Resources: Colombia Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[30]=new Array(31,"topics/topic13.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Conclusion	Disease has often intervened powerfully in Latin American history. European diseases decimated indigenous populations in the 1500s. Tropical diseases plagued Europeans who took up residence in lowland regions of Latin America. The historical study of disease has gained momentum in recent years, partly because of new microbiological analysis of human remains. The spread of micro-organisms to environments where they were previously unknown, by migrating peoples and animals, has attracted scholars from the fields of history to biology, epidemiology, and medical anthropology. Disease in Latin America, today, is likewise garnering attention. AIDS has reached alarmingly high percentages of the population in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Brazil. Other infectious diseases, such as cholera and dengue fever, have also mobilized health care officials and scholars. A paper on the history of disease in Latin America could look at the colonial period and how diseases decimated indigenous and European populations, or it could focus on more recent problems: the outbreak of yellow fever in Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, and Havana in the 1800s; the way malaria and yellow fever put a stop to the French attempt to construct the Panama Canal; or the AIDS epidemic today and measures that are being taken to combat it. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Disease is one of the more silent actors in human history, though it has the power to reshape demographics. Of course, disease was coupled with forced labor during the early colonial period, which also decimated indigenous populations in Latin America. What are the statistics that help to understand the magnitude of changing demographics during the colonial period? How did disease accompany urbanization and the rise of Latin America \'s future mega-cities around the turn of the twentieth century? That is, what diseases emerged in urban environments, and how did disease play into city planning? Treating epidemics of today is a challenge, especially for countries with limited financial resources. What measures are being taken in places like Haiti and Brazil to combat AIDS? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Alchon, Suzanne Austin. A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003.	This recent study is one of the most complete overviews of the history of disease in the Americas. Alchon situates the effects of disease within in the larger historical picture of colonization, challenging arguments advanced by Diamond and others. Students interested in the topic should start with this book.	________. Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador. New York: Cambridge	University Press, 1991.	Alchon \'s earlier study of disease in Latin America provides a short case study, focusing on the indigenous inhabitants on the northern edge of the Inca empire.	** Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York:	Norton, 1997.	In this engaging tour of how guns, germs, and steel have helped shaped the course of human history, students will find several chapters that introduce the role of disease in America during the colonial period.	Ward, James S. Yellow Fever in Latin America: A Geographical Study. Liverpool: University	of Liverpool, Centre for Latin-American Studies, 1972. Other Resources: Brazil Dominican Republic Haiti Canal! Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[31]=new Array(32,"topics/topic14.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Progress; Neocolonialism; Nationalism	Scientific racism, combining scientific methods and erroneous racist ideas, casts a pall over Latin American history in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Scientific racists began with the assumption that Europeans constituted a superior race and that other races constituted lower tiers of a racial hierarchy. Since Latin American populations were not primarily European in origin, scientific racism was very bad news for ruling classes not inclined to question prestigious doctrines emitted by intellectuals in the world \'s most advanced countries. One hope of Latin American rulers around 1900 was that races could be improved by conscious manipulation of various kinds. The science of racial improvement was called eugenics. Whitening populations was one mode of implementing eugenics. The strategy entailed attracting enough light-skinned (European) immigrants who, through the mixing of genes, would whiten the population. Harsher measures sometimes aimed to prevent reproduction among those of African and indigenous descent. The prestige of eugenics was on display at fairs and exhibits where skulls were measured to indicate the level of intelligence (the science known as phrenology), and where human specimens of the lower orders were displayed to gawking crowds. Though such practices may astound us today, they were in line with the science of the time, and science then, as well as now, commanded respect. Eugenics programs were carried out in the United States, too. A paper on eugenics should demonstrate a clear understanding of the doctrines of scientific racism and use primary sources to show how these were present in the thinking of Latin American elites and the policies of states around the turn of the twentieth century. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Scientific racism was part of the drive for order and progress during the neocolonial moment. Whose scientific work served as a foundation for the ideas of eugenics? How was eugenics practiced in different Latin American countries, and what led to its decline after 1930? Travelogues are valuable primary sources concerning the ways travelers (and, by extension, their audiences) understood the world. After exploring some of the bibliography on eugenics, pick a Latin American country around 1890 and imagine yourself as a visitor there from the U.S. Write an entry for a travelogue, making sure that eugenics figures in your comments. Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Dávila, Jerry. Diploma of Whiteness: Race and Social Policy in Brazil, 1917 1945. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.	Dávila \'s recent study explores the idea of whitening as it was applied in Brazilian public schools—through the mixing of gene pools, as well as through molding symbolic values that were more white.	** Graham, Richard, ed. The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870—1940. With an introduction	by Richard Graham. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990.	The essays of this collection introduce scientific racism and its connections to social policy and conceptions of race in Brazil, Argentina, Cuba, and Mexico.	Lynn, Richard. Eugenics: A Reassessment. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001.	Though not focused on Latin America, the first part of this overview of eugenics provides a background to the science (from Europe) that led to scientific racism.	** Stepan, Nancy Leys. The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America.	Ithaca, NY. Cornell University Press, 1991.	Students looking for a historical overview of eugenics in Latin America should begin with this short book. Stepan also provides a brief comparative perspective of eugenics in the U.S.	Wade, Peter. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. London: Pluto Press, 1997.	The introduction and first two chapters of this book are most relevant for students looking at the problem of eugenics. Other Resources: European Immigration Race Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[32]=new Array(33,"topics/topic15.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Progress; Neocolonialism; Nationalism	Sparsely populated and suitable to many of the same crops grown in Europe, the fertile lands of the Southern Cone were a main target of colonization schemes in the mid 1800s. Both Brazil and Chile acquired German-speaking farming settlements in their southern territories, for example. English, Irish, and many others also arrived in small numbers. Then, between 1880 and 1930 Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil underwent a major wave of European immigration that transformed their national populations. These immigrants were the precise counterparts of others lining up at Ellis Island in New York at the very same time. Many came from the same places as immigrants to the United States, especially Italy. Many were Jewish. Brazil experienced a new surge of immigrants from Portugal, while Argentina and Uruguay got a similar new surge of immigration from Spain. Student research and writing can explore immigration policy, the debates around it, the experiences of the immigrants, and their impact on the host societies. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What incentives led Europeans to emigrate to the Southern Cone in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? How did the realities that immigrants faced differ from the hopes they had upon crossing the Atlantic, and from the ideas presented in recruitment schemes promoted by the Argentine, Brazilian, Chilean, or Uruguayan state? Immigration often sparks heated debate about what and who make up a nation. What are some of the main arguments advocates and opponents of immigration made in Southern Cone countries around the turn of the twentieth century? Compare these with the current discussions regarding Latin American immigration to the United States. Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Baily, Samuel L. Immigrants in the Lands of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires and New York City, 1870—1914. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.	Baily provides a readable comparative study of Italian immigration to the port cities of Buenos Aires and New York. Especially useful for students exploring the topic of European migration are the chapters on the motivations behind crossing the Atlantic and what immigrants found upon arrival to the New World.	**________, and Eduardo José Míguez, eds. Mass Migration to Modern Latin America.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003.	This collection of essays is a good starting place for students interested in learning more about immigrant experiences and the history of immigration to Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Useful comparisons are made with immigration in the U.S. during the same period, roughly from 1870 1950.	________, and Franco Ramella, eds. One Family, Two Worlds: An Italian Family \'s	Correspondence Across the Atlantic, 1901—1922. Translated by John Lenaghan. New	Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988.	This edited volume of letters allows students to explore the experience of Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires through primary sources, many of which informed Baily \'s Immigrants in the Lands of Promise.	** Holloway, Thomas H. Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in São Paulo,	1886—1934. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1980.	Holloway provides a readable history of coffee in Brazil, focusing on the colonization schemes that brought immigrants to work the land and highlighting the impacts coffee had on social relations and the Brazilian economy.	Lesser, Jeffrey. Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. Berkeley:	University of California Press, 1994.	Lesser \'s monograph explores the experiences of Jewish immigrants in Brazil during the first half of the twentieth century.	Moya, José C. Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850—1930.	Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. 1998.	Cousins and Strangers is a detailed scholarly treatment of Spanish immigration to Argentina from the 1850s 1930s.	** Scobie, James R. Revolution on the Pampas: A Social History of Argentine Wheat,	1860—1910. Austin: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas Press,	1964.	Though dated, Scobie \'s classic work on the transformation of the Pampas will introduce students to the role of immigrants in making Argentina a major exporter of agricultural products, in addition to animal products. Scobie also provides an overview of government strategies of recruitment and colonization schemes. This book is a good starting point for those interested in immigrants in Argentina. Other Resources: Argentina Brazil Chile Uruguay Eugenics Labor History Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[33]=new Array(34,"topics/topic16.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Nationalism; Revolution; Reaction	The phenomenon called Peronism looms large on the political horizon of twentieth-century Argentina. Juan Perón rose to power immediately after World War II, governed the country directly for a decade, then went into exile in 1955. But the Argentine working class that he had mobilized politically maintained a powerful Peronist movement during Perón \'s prolonged exile through the 1960s and into the 1970s. By the 1970s, the movement had divided. The Montonero leftist guerrilla movement emerged from Peronism, but so did reactionary forces of the right allied with the military dictatorship. When Perón finally returned to Argentina in 1973, left-wing and right-wing Peronists fought over his legacy. Actual shootouts occurred in the crowd that gathered to greet Perón at the airport when he landed in Buenos Aires. Papers on Peronism often highlight the charismatic figure of Evita Perón rather than her husband, but they should also include at least the broad contours of the movement from the 1940s to the 1990s. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What allowed Perón to garner massive political support in the early 1940s—support that propelled him to the presidency? Juan Perón \'s wife Evita played a major part in the creation and legacy of Peronism, though Evita was always quick to point out that she served Perón. What role did Evita play on the political stage, how did she inspire followers, and how did she represent a step forward for women \'s rights in Argentina? What changes have Peronism and the Peronist party undergone since the early 1970s, especially following the Dirty War? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Crassweller, Robert D. Perón and the Enigmas of Argentina. New York: Norton, 1987.	Students will want to focus on parts three and four of this study of Perón.	** Fraser, Nicholas, and Marysa Navarro. Evita: The Real Life of Eva Perón. New York:	Norton, 1996.	Students will find this biography of Eva Perón an engaging read and informative overview.	** Gillespie, Richard. Soldiers of Perón: Argentina \'s Montoneros. Oxford, England:	Clarendon Press, 1992.	Students interested in the Montonero guerrilla movement, its ties to Peronism, and the Montoneros as a political force will find this book useful.	** Hodges, Donald C. Argentina, 1943—1987: The National Revolution and Resistance, rev.	and enl. ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988.	Hodges \' monograph (with proper scholarly trimmings) provides a synthetic overview of the period, stretching from Perón \'s rise to power and the tragic dirty war.	________. Argentina \'s Dirty War: An Intellectual Biography . Austin: University of Texas	Press, 1991.	Eloy Martínez, Tomás. Santa Evita . Translated by Helen Lane. New York: Knopf, 1996.	Eloy blends fiction and fact to explore the myth that surrounds Evita.	** Perón, Eva. My Mission in Life. Translated by Ethel Cherry. New York: Vantage Press, 1953.	This collection of Evita \'s writings offer students a firsthand perspective on Evita \'s thinking and the motivations behind her work.	________. In My Own Words. With an introduction by Joseph A. Page. New York: The New	Press, 1996.	Here students will find a translation of the document that is supposedly the deathbed manuscript of Evita, controversial for its critique of the Church and the military.	Turner, Frederick C., and José Enrique Miguens, eds. Juan Perón and the Reshaping of	Argentina. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983. Other Resources: Slavery and Abolition Eugenics Quilombos and Palenques -- Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[34]=new Array(35,"topics/topic17.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Progress	Gauchos were cowboys, similar, in a number of ways, to the U.S. variety. They rode horseback, roped and branded cattle, established their pecking order in one-on-one duels. But this South American cattle frontier lasted much longer than the U.S. version, and the gauchos were cowboys and Indians, one could say mestizos who sometimes spoke an indigenous language and often wore garments of indigenous origin. One could add that black gauchos (like black cowboys in the United States) were far from uncommon, too. Gauchos, like cowboys, loom large in the national imagination of Argentina and Uruguay, and Brazil \'s southernmost state Rio Grande do Sul is also gaucho country. In fact, gaúcho in colloquial Brazilian speech refers to anyone from Rio Grande do Sul, one of contemporary Brazil \'s most important states. Students approaching the study of gauchos should get a feeling for the frontier milieu in which the real ones lived. Those who read Spanish can also explore the mythic gauchos of the rich gauchesca literature of Argentina and Uruguay.	The phenomenon of caudillismo , linked with gauchos since Sarmiento \'s Facundo , is another important connection. Caudillismo is hardly a phenomenon limited to gaucho country, however. Students can identify a caudillo to research in the history of any Latin American country. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Originally, the term gaucho referred to vagabonds who roamed the grasslands of the Río de la Plata. They were later incorporated as cow hands on great estates. What are the origins of these vagabonds, what was life like for them on the cattle frontier, and how did their situation change over the course of the 1800s? Caudillos were normally landowners who had a natural talent for attracting followers and inspiring loyalty. What role did they play in nineteenth-century Argentina and Uruguay? At the end of the nineteenth century, gauchos were marginalized, seen as troublemakers to be tamed, educated, or done away with. However, gauchos are pervasive figures in the national imaginations of Argentina, Uruguay, and Rio Grande do Sul. How did gauchos go from being considered a nuisance to honored symbols of what it means to be Argentine, Uruguayan, or Rio Grandense? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Chasteen, John Charles. Heroes on Horseback: A Life and Times of the Last Gaucho Caudillos. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.	The story of gauchos and caudillos along the Uruguay-Brazil border at the end of the nineteenth century.	De la Fuente, Ariel. Children of Facundo: Caudillo and Gaucho Insurgency During the	Argentine State-Formation Process (La Rioja, 1853—1870). Durham, NC:	Duke University Press, 2000.	A scholarly treatment of the battles waged between the last Argentine gauchos and the Argentine state during the years leading up to the rise of wheat farming and Argentina \'s export boom.	Lynch, John. Argentine Caudillo: Juan Manuel de Rosas, rev. and abridged ed. of Argentine	Dictator: Juan Manuel de Rosas, 1829—1851. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources,	2001.	A masterful portrait of one of Latin America \'s most powerful and well-known gaucho caudillos—Rosas.	** Slatta, Richard W. Gauchos and the Vanishing Frontier. Lincoln: University of Nebraska	Press, 1983. Other Resources: Argentina Brazil Uruguay A Model Country European Immigration Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[35]=new Array(36,"topics/topic18.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues	Haiti began as the French side of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, divided between France and Spain. While Haiti does not fit within the normal historical meaning of Latin America, as defined by Iberian colonization, it nevertheless plays an important role in Latin American history. The reason is simple. The Haitian Revolution of the 1790s was the worst nightmare of Latin American slave owners, the greatest cautionary tale ever told on the plantations of the Americas. It occurred when French control over Haiti weakened during France \'s own revolutionary spasms. As doctrines of the rights of man rang in the streets of Paris, Haitian slaves rose up to slaughter and drive out the French plantation owners altogether. Their leader was Toussaint L \'Ouverture, a former slave imbued with the spirit of the French Revolution. Haiti became a black republic, one that dominated the Spanish half of the island, as well. In 1815, at the low point of his struggle against Spain, Simón Bolívar got material aid and moral support from Haitian president Petión, who asked in return only that Bolívar free Venezuelan slaves. A paper on the Haitian Revolution should definitely include the classic work, The Black Jacobins. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What were the characteristics of Haiti under French domination? How does the Haitian Revolution fit into the larger story of the wars of independence in Latin America? How did the revolution inspire or damper other independence movements? Since the early 1800s, the relationship between Haiti and the Dominican Republic has been full of tensions, much like that of the U.S. and Mexico. What are some of the main sources of tension, and how have these affected Haitian-Dominican relations throughout the twentieth century? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Arthur, Charles, and Michael Dash, eds. Libèrte: A Haiti Anthology. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1999.	A useful selection of primary and secondary sources on topics in Haitian history ranging from colonization to the turn of the twenty-first century.	** Bellegarde-Smith, Patrick. Haiti: The Breached Citadel. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990.	This account emphasizes the political, economic, and social results of the revolution, then concentrates on Haiti in the twentieth century. Maps and photos are interspersed throughout the text. Appendices, notes, a bibliographical essay, and an index follow the narrative.	Bell, Madison Smartt. Master of the Crossroads. New York: Pantheon Books, 2000.	A novel about Toussiant L \'Ouverture and the slave uprising in Haiti that led to independence.	** Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below.	Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990.	A well-written scholarly treatment of the Haitian revolution.	Geggus, David P., ed. The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World. Columbia,	SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.	Most chapters of this edited volume look at the impact of the revolution in the U.S., though a handful explore its reach to Cuba and Colombia. The first three chapters provide a general overview of the revolution.	** James, C.L.R. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L \'Ouverture and the San Domingo	Revolution, 2nd rev. ed. New York: Vintage, 1989.	A must-read classic for students interested in the revolution and the history of Haiti.	** Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 2nd ed.	New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.	Knight \'s regional history aims to put the national experience of each country within the larger historical context of the Caribbean. The survey begins with a comparative look at the pre-Hispanic Caribbean, shifts to colonization, slavery and plantation society, and then turns to imperial fragmentation. In the second half of the book, Knight focuses on individual national cases. Maps, tables, a timeline, and a bibliographical essay on suggested readings are included.	Matibag, Eugenio. Haitian-Dominican Counterpoint: Nation, State, and Race on Hispaniola.	New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.	A scholarly interpretation of Haitian-Dominican relations.	Nicholls, David. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in	Haiti. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979.	An overview of Haiti since independence, looking closely at the role of race, and balancing the account between political, social, and cultural history.	Palmer, Colin A., and Franklin W. Knight, eds. The Modern Caribbean. Chapel Hill: The	University of North Carolina Press, 1989.	This collection of essays on the Caribbean region is intended for the general public and undergraduate students. A detailed bibliography is included. Other Resources: African Background Quilombos and Palenques Sugar Labor History Neo-African Religions Religion National Identities in the Caribbean Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[36]=new Array(37,"topics/topic19.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues	Traditional Spanish and Portuguese gender ethics, conceived as the code of honor, dominated relations between Latin American men and women from the colonial period into the 1900s. At least this was true for men and women whose ideas about gender were basically Iberian, and who could afford to pay the material cost of maintaining honor. The code of honor differentiated strongly between sorts of behavior proper for men and for women. Men and women had different traditional roles to play, and honor was the measure of how well they played them. In other words, the famous double standard, a phrase used in English to describe attitudes that permit men to do what women must not do, was basic to the honor system. While the traditional honor system is far from what most people today consider an ideal standard of gender ethics, its power over people \'s minds before the twentieth century should not be underestimated. Students approaching the history of the honor system in Latin America, whether during the colonial period or through oppositions to it in the 1900s, should be sure to consider the code of honor in Iberia and how it governed gender roles and social hierarchy. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What social hierarchy did the honor code establish in Spain and Portugal during the colonial period? Were there ways in which people could challenge their assigned places? What challenges did the honor system face in the twentieth century, and how has the code of gender ethics changed across Latin America since the 1950s? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Johnson, Lyman, and Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, eds. The Faces of Honor: Sex, shame, and Violence in Colonial Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998. The Faces of Honor is one of a few recent collections of scholarly essays that give students a chance to explore the functioning of the honor system in widely separated parts of colonial Latin America.	Pitt-Rivers, Julian Alfred. The Fate of Shechem, or The Politics of Sex: Essays in the	Anthropology of the Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.	A compelling and accessible account of the system in its Mediterranean origins.	** Twinam, Ann. Public Lives, Private Secrets: Gender, Honor, Sexuality, and Illegitimacy	in Colonial Spanish America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.	A broad look at the honor system in colonial Latin America. Other Resources: Women \'s Movements Gender Caste Paintings Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",13);arrFiles[37]=new Array(38,"topics/topic20.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Revolution	Novels about indigenous people and their relationship with national societies constitute an important genre in Latin American literary history. Indigenista novels were written from the 1880s to the 1950s, and their authors were often political activists. Indigenistas sought to advocate for indigenous people, and to interpret them sympathetically to national reading audiences. Often, indigenista novels display a paternalistic attitude toward indigenous people, protective but superior. Ultimately, they promoted assimilating indigenous people into mainstream national cultures. From a multiculturalist point of view, that approach leaves a lot to be desired, although it has long been standard procedure for nationalists the world over. If students are careful to read with this controversial aspect in mind, indigenista novels provide a vivid and provocative approach to Andean society. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Indigenista novels were written during the moments of both neocolonialism and nationalism. What contrasting features of these years were motivating factors for the authors of the novels? It will be helpful to think about the forms of labor that made neocolonialism possible and then about the goal of nationalists to search for an indigenous identity that contrasted with European influence. What examples of a protective, paternalistic attitude can you find in the novels? What does this suggest about the general characteristics of indigenismo , specifically regarding the reconciliation of sympathy for indigenous populations with the goal of integrating them into the national fabric? Up to the 1800s, writing was almost uniquely an activity practiced by elites. During and after the wars of independence, other groups gained access to the power of writing and often used it to oppose those who held political power. Where do indigenista novels fit into the broad history of writing as a social practice in Latin America, and who were their authors? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Alegría, Ciro. Broad and Alien is the World. Translated by Harriet de Onís. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1941.	This novel by Alegría is, in literary terms, probably the best among the texts listed here. A powerful, engrossing novel, despite the translation. Alegria \'s vision exemplifies the romanticizing tendencies of nationalist indigenistas in search of an authentic national essence.	Arguedas, José Maria. Yawar Fiesta. Translated by Frances Horning Barraclough. Austin:	University of Texas Press, 1985. Yawar Fiesta is the highly informed vision of a Peruvian anthropologist who grew up in the provincial Andean city he describes in the novel.	Matto de Turner, Clorinda. Birds without a Nest. Translated by J. G. Hudson; emended by	Naomi Lindstrom. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996. Birds without a Nest is not a gripping read, but it is easy to interpret. Just as one would expect of a novel written in 1889, this is an indigenista vision with marked neocolonial tones.	Muñoz, Braulio. Sons of the Wind: The Search for Identity in Spanish American Indian	Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1982.	Chapters two and three of this monograph provide a general introduction to the indigenista novel. Other Resources: Bolivia Chile Ecuador Peru Culture Boom Novels Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[38]=new Array(39,"topics/topic21.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neoliberalism	In the 1980s and 1990s, prevalent neoliberal economic policies of structural adjustment eliminated manufacturing jobs in Latin America by facilitating international competition. In addition, privatization of formerly state-run firms and implementation of austerity programs to trim government bureaucracies, two other standard elements of the neoliberal recipe, created further unemployment in Latin American cities. The result was the expansion, in these years, of what has been called the informal economy . Anyone who has recently visited a large Latin American city will have seen the workers of the informal economy. Most of them are street vendors, but not of the sort we find in big cities in the United States, who normally have formal stands and sell the same goods day in and day out. Whether workers of the informal economy in Latin America are selling their labor and skills, articles of clothing, car-washing service at stop lights, umbrellas on a rainy day, or flowers, they live day to day without any job security, and often sell different things on different days. Students approaching the topic should highlight the range of workers, goods, and services involved in the informal economy, while concentrating on the factors and conditions that led to this economy \'s emergence and expansion during the moment of neoliberalism. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What institutions and social sectors have advocated neoliberal economic policies, and in what political context? How have neoliberal policies generated unemployment during the past twenty-five years? Aside from job insecurity, what other disadvantages come along with the growth of informal economies in contemporary Latin America? What could be done to reverse these trends? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Rakowski, Cathy A. Contrapunto: The Informal Sector Debate in Latin America. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.	These essays introduce some of the key issues, in most cases through the lens of political science and public policy.	** Staudt, Kathleen. Informal Economies at the U.S.-Mexico Border. Philadelphia: Temple	University Press, 1998.	Though not a survey of the informal economy throughout Latin America, this study of informal economic activities along the U.S.-Mexico border is a good starting point, in part because students may find some familiarity in the focus, and in part because Staudt brings in issues that go beyond pure economics or policy, like culture, the drive to make a better life, and the meanings of borders.	Stearns, Katherine, and María Otero, eds. The Critical Connection: Governments, Private	Institutions, and the Informal Sector in Latin America. Washington, DC: Acción	International, 1990.	This book may not be widely available, but where it is, students will find a succinct overview of the informal sector \'s relationship to states and private companies, as well as essays on the informal economy in Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru.	** Thomas, J. J. Surviving in the City: The Urban Informal Sector in Latin America. London: Pluto Press, 1995.	Thomas explores the economic roots of the informal economy in Latin America \'s urban centers, focusing on the links between the formal and informal sectors, and how gender, age, and class are tied to the informal economy.	** Tokman, Víctor E., ed. Beyond Regulation: The Informal Economy in Latin America.	Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992.	Though not the most engaging of narratives, this collection of essays provides a good overview of the informal sector in Latin America.	________, and Emilio Klein, eds. Regulation and the Informal Economy: Microenterprises in	Chile, Ecuador, and Jamaica. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996. Other Resources: Labor History Latin American Migration to the United States NAFTA Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[39]=new Array(40,"topics/topic22.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues; Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Neoliberalism	Broadly understood, labor is among the most central problems of Latin American history. What did the Spanish Crown parcel out to the conquerors as the primary reward for their efforts? Indigenous labor, in the form of encomiendas . What was the most enduring bone of contention between the Crown and the heirs of the conquerors? Indigenous labor. What was the purpose of the slave trade that left such a deep imprint on Latin America? Labor, of course. What did landowners all over Latin America struggle to extract from peasantries that would rather have spent their days in subsistence farming? Labor. These examples refer mostly to agricultural labor. In the twentieth century, industrial labor became more central. In some Latin American countries, such as Brazil and Argentina, organized labor played a protagonistic role in the middle years of the twentieth century. Given the many ways students can approach labor in Latin American history, it will be helpful to select a particular moment and then concentrate on a problem that allows for a comparative perspective. Indigenous labor in the Andes during the colonial period, slave labor on Caribbean sugar plantations, and organized labor as a political force in the 1900s are some examples of possible paper topics that would lend themselves to comparative labor history. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Why was it so often necessary, in the history of Latin America before 1900, to force people to become wage laborers in the market economy? Organized labor has deep roots in many Latin American countries. How did labor unions gain political clout in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Bolivia? How have neoliberal economic policies affected labor organizations in Latin America, and, more broadly, shaped the contours of labor history at the turn of the twenty-first century? How do issues of gender intersect with labor issues? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Alexander, Robert J. A History of Organized Labor in Argentina. With the collaboration of Eldon M. Parker. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.	________. A History of Organized Labor in Brazil. With the collaboration of Eldon M. Parker. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.	________. A History of Organized Labor in Cuba. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.	Brown, Jonathan C., ed. Workers \' Control in Latin America, 1930 1979. Chapel Hill: The	University of North Carolina Press, 1997.	Caulfield, Normal. Mexican Workers and the State: From the Porfiriato to NAFTA. Fort	Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1998.	French, John D. The Brazilian Workers \' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São	Paulo. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1992.	A succinct scholarly study of labor organizing in Latin America \'s greatest industrial center.	Greenfield, Gerald Michael, and Sheldon Maram, eds. Latin American Labor Organizations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1987.	Above all a reference work, this book provides an outline of labor history in Latin America and then details labor organizations country by country.	** Peloso, Vincent C., ed. Work, Protest, and Identity in Twentieth-Century Latin America.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003.	This geographically balanced collection of essays introduces key themes of twentieth-century Latin American labor history.	Schell Hoberman, Louisa, and Susan Migden Socolow. The Countryside in Colonial Latin	America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.	A collection of essays that provides a good starting place for students researching labor during the colonial period.	Turner, Mary, ed. From Chattel Slaves to Wage Slaves: The Dynamics of Labour Bargaining	in the Americas. Kingston: Ian Randle; Bloomington: Indiana University Press;	London: James Currey, 1995.	A broad overview of labor in the Americas from the colonial period up to the beginning of the twentieth century. Other Resources: Banana Republics Canal! Latin American Migration to the United States Quilombos and Palenques Slavery and Abolition Informal Economy Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[40]=new Array(41,"topics/topic23.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Revolution; Reaction; Neoliberalism	Just as it was a hundred years ago, the United States is again, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, a country of immigrants. A vivid turn-of-the-century reminder of that fact is the prevalence of immigrants from the Dominican Republic on U.S. major-league baseball teams. But Dominican major-leaguers are only one example of the much larger phenomenon of Latin American immigration to the United States. Mexicans comprise by far the most numerous immigrants, followed by Central Americans and people from the Caribbean. Along the vast and sparsely populated U.S. border with Mexico, stopping the flow of people determined to seek a better life in the United States, legally or illegally, has been a losing battle because of the overwhelming demand here for the labor that the immigrants provide. Latin American migrant laborers are now absolutely basic to the agricultural labor force of the United States. A paper on this topic should be careful not to lump together legal and illegal migrants, nor immigrants with Latinos in general. Most U.S. Latinos were born in this country and thus are not immigrants at all. In addition, a substantial number of Mexican men now travels back and forth seasonally between Mexico and the United States as part of a government-supervised guest worker program. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: The U.S. has been, at least since the 1930s, unable to do without labor from Latin American immigrants. What are some of the economic factors that have defined this relationship, and what have been some of its social, cultural, political, and legal consequences? How do the current questions surrounding the debate over immigration from Latin America compare with other moments of strong waves of immigration to the U.S. throughout the twentieth century? What effect has NAFTA had on migration from Mexico? Think for a minute about your family history and at what point your ancestors made their way to the United States. What challenges did they face upon their arrival here? How do these compare with challenges faced by Latin American migrants today? What contributions do Latin American immigrants make to your community? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Benson, Sonia G. The Hispanic American Almanac: A Reference Work on Hispanics in the United States , 3rd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003.	Cockcroft, James D. Outlaws in the Promised Land: Mexican Immigrant Workers and	America \'s Future. New York: Grove Press, 1986.	DeFreitas, Gregory. Inequality at Work: Hispanics in the U.S. Labor Force. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1991.	The first two chapters offer a good introduction to different Latin American migrant groups in the United States.	*Fink, Leon. The Maya of Morgantown: Work and Community in the Nuevo New South.	Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.	Gonzalez, Juan. Harvest of Empire: a History of Latinos in America. New York: Viking, 2000.	Hart, John Mason, ed. Border Crossings: Mexican and Mexican-American Workers.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1998.	Jiménez, Francisco. The Circuit: Stories from the Life of a Migrant Child. Albuquerque:	University of New Mexico Press, 1997.	Rothenberg, Daniel. With These Hands: The Hidden World of Migrant Farmworkers Today.	New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998.	** Thompson, Jr., Charles D., and Melinda F. Wiggins, eds. The Human Cost of Food:	Farmworkers \' Lives, Labor, and Advocacy. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.	This collection of essays presents a vivid, readable introduction to the way of life led by so many Latin American immigrants. Other Resources: U.S. Latinos NAFTA Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[41]=new Array(42,"topics/topic24.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible; Independence	Lima and the Pacific coast constitute a historically important side of Peru, much less known than the country \'s spectacular Andean highlands. Only in recent years have migrants from the highlands begun to give their own flavor to parts of coastal Peru. Historically, Lima and the coast were a land apart from highland culture with its predominantly indigenous tone. Coastal Peru, in contrast, was the location of colonial sugar plantations, worked by African slaves and owned by wealthy white Creoles. Together with the city of Lima, coastal Peru has traditionally been criollo Peru, more black-and-white than indigenous. The folk music and accents of coastal Peru sound different from their highland counterparts. Lima, dubbed the City of Kings, was the second most important Spanish city in America, or even, during the 1600s, the most important—a densely constructed, walled complex of buildings that in 1823 was the last viceregal capital to lower the Spanish flag in America. There are many aspects a paper on criollo Peru could explore, ranging from Lima \'s role as colonial capital, to the recent migration of highland inhabitants toward the coast, or expressions of cultural differences between coastal residents and highlanders present in Peruvian history from the Encounter up through the nineteenth century. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What led Spaniards to choose Lima as a seat of the Spanish empire in America, and what allowed them to maintain it as one of the two most important cities during the colonial period? What colonial administrative institutions were established in Lima, and what were the broad boundaries of their jurisdiction on the continent? The rebellion of Tupac Amaru II was extremely frightening to colonial bureaucrats in Lima. How did the rebellion affect the movement for independence in Peru, especially compared to areas in the neighboring viceroyalties of New Granada and the Rio de la Plata? In general terms, how has the economy of coastal Peru changed since independence, and what is motivating the recent migration of highlanders toward the Pacific? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Blanchard, Peter. Slavery and Abolition in Early Republican Peru. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1992.	Cushner, Nicholas P. Lords of the Land: Sugar, Wine, and Jesuit Estates of Coastal Peru,	1600—1767. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980.	Cushner provides a clearly written scholarly overview of labor and land holdings in colonial coastal Peru.	Higgins, James. Lima: A Cultural and Literary History. Oxford: Signal Books, 2005.	This short book is meant to introduce the nonspecialist to Lima \'s history, architecture, monuments, and neighborhoods. It is not a history, but may serve well as a first stop for students interested specifically in the city of Lima.	Keith, Robert G. Conquest and Agrarian Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda System on	the Peruvian Coast. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976.	Though dated, this book offers a concise look at the history of landed estates in Peru.	Mugaburu, Josephe and Francisco. Chronicle of Colonial Lima: The Diary of Josephe and	Francisco Mugaburu, 1640—1694. Translated and edited by Robert Ryal Miller.	Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 1975.	Palma, Ricardo. Peruvian Traditions. Translated by Helen Lane. Edited and with an	introduction by Christopher Conway. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.	Students will find interesting portraits of Lima and life in the City of Kings in this selection of stories by one of Latin America \'s great writers.	Parker, D. S. The Idea of the Middle Class: White-Collar Workers and Peruvian Society,	1900—1950. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998.	Parker presents a scholarly treatment of the formation of a distinct middle class in Peru during the first half of the twentieth century, focusing on both the material and symbolic meanings that defined this class. Students interested in the development of class structure in urban, coastal Peru—the dominant geographical focus of the study—and the politics of class will find this book quite useful.	** Ramírez, Susan E. Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Economics of Power in	Colonial Peru. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986.	Ramírez \'s history of the development of Peruvian land ownership and its social and economic consequences is one of the most complete in English. Though lengthy, it is a good starting point for students interested in Lima and coastal Peru during the colonial period. Other Resources: Peru African Background Slavery and Abolition Labor History The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780 1783 Sugar Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[42]=new Array(43,"topics/topic25.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Revolution; Reaction	From the time U.S. troops entered Cuba in the War of 1898 until the 1930s, the United States intervened militarily in Latin America on repeated occasions. Unlike most of these interventions, however, the Nicaraguan intervention of the 1920s became a fierce and protracted war between U.S. marines and nationalist guerrillas led by the famous Augusto César Sandino. It was in remembrance of these first Sandinistas that the Marxist movement founded in the 1960s called itself the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN). A paper on the first Sandinistas and the U.S. intervention in Nicaragua should be based on an overview of U.S. policy from 1898 to the emergence of Franklin Roosevelt \'s Good Neighbor policy. The Nicaraguan intervention can then be used as a case study. Nationalist guerrilla leader Augusto César Sandino left writings that are available in English, providing an interesting and convenient primary source for students to interpret. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What led the United States to intervene militarily in Nicaragua in the 1920s, and how did this intervention fit into the larger context of U.S.-Latin American relations prior to the 1930s? What was the outcome of the war with the forces led by Sandino? How did the moment of nationalism play out in Nicaragua, and how did nationalism facilitate Sandino \'s rise to fame? What has been the trajectory of Sandino \'s legacy since the 1930s? How did U.S. policy toward Latin America change in the 1930s, and what, if any, part did the experience in Nicaragua have in shaping the so-called Good Neighbor policy? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Burns, E. Bradford. At War in Nicaragua: The Reagan Doctrine and the Politics of Nostalgia. New York: Harper & Row, 1987.	A concise historical account of the war the United States waged by proxy in Nicaragua in the 1980s, linking it back to the period of U.S. intervention in Nicaragua and Central America in the 1920s and 30s.	** Cabezas, Omar. Fire from the Mountain: The Making of a Sandinista. Translated by	Kathleen Weaver. With a foreword by Carlos Fuentes and an afterword by Walter	LaFeber. New York: Crown Publishers, 1985.	An engaging personal narrative of how he became a Sandinista fighter and leader in the 1960s and 1970s.	** Gilderhus, Mark T. The Second Century: U.S.-Latin American Relations since 1889.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000.	This history of U.S.-Latin American relations provides a helpful overview in chapters one and two.	** Hodges, Donald C. Intellectual Foundations of the Nicaraguan Revolution. Austin:	University of Texas Press, 1986.	________. Sandino \'s Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century. Austin:	University of Texas Press, 1992.	** Macaulay, Neil. The Sandino Affair. Reprint. Originally published Chicago: Quadrangle	Books, 1967. Micanopy, FL: Wachoota, 1998.	The most complete historical account in English of the rise of Sandino and his clash with the United States. Though dense in parts, it is clearly written and a good starting point.	Navarro-Génie, Marco Aurelio. Augusto César Sandino. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University	Press, 2002.	Aurelio \'s study of Sandino focuses on the leader \'s religious leanings and the connections between millenarianism and the fight against U.S. marines.	** Ramírez, Sergio, ed. Sandino: The Testimony of a Nicaraguan Patriot, 1921—1934.	Translated with an introduction by Robert Edgar Conrad. Princeton: Princeton	University Press, 1990.	The translated writings of Sandino himself offers students direct access to his thinking.	** Sheesley, Joel C. Sandino in the Streets. Translated and edited by Wayne G.	Bragg. With a prologue by Ernesto Cardenal and an introduction by Jack W.	Hopkins. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.	A collection of well-written essays and wonderful photographs on Sandino and his legacy. Other Resources: Nicaragua The Revolutionary Left in El Salvador The Cuban Revolution Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[43]=new Array(44,"topics/topic26.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter	Mayan civilization peaked too early to impress the Spanish in the manner of the Inca and Aztec empires. The great Mayan ceremonial centers visited by modern tourists were all in ruin when the Spanish arrived in the 1500s. In fact, the highpoint of Mayan imperial organization was almost a thousand years earlier. Mayan city states were located in high mountains, in densely forested tropical lowlands, and on the arid Yucatán peninsula. Like the Mexicans (and other indigenous people of central Mexico), the Maya built stone pyramids, but they did not dedicate any to human sacrifice. A paper on the Maya will naturally linger, not on empire building but on Mayan culture. Mayan cities contained ball courts where opposing teams tried to get a rubber ball through a stone hoop. The game was not a sport, but a ritual, and often a matter of life and death, too. Mayan writing, composed of symbols called glyphs, was the most elaborate created by any indigenous civilization. In an attempt to eradicate Mayan indigenous religious belief, the Spanish conquistadors burned large collections of Mayan writings. The Mayan language lives on today, but its linguistic fragmentation mirrors the political fragmentation of the city states. Modern Mayan is a family of languages, rather than a single language. Quiché and Mam, two modern Mayan languages, are no more alike than English and German or French and Italian. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What was Mayan social structure like, and how did it compare to social hierarchies of the Aztec and Inca empires? What factors accounted for the early peak and decline of Mayan imperial organization? The monumental architecture built by the Maya is still visible today in pyramids and massive stone sculptures. The Maya also engaged in other forms of artistic production that included the crafting of ornate jewelry and developing a system of writing. What meanings and functions did these various types of cultural production have during the highpoint of Mayan civilization and in the renaissance of Mayan city states just before the arrival of the Spaniards? Despite the highpoint of Mayan civilization and political cohesion ending around 900, Mayan culture continued to thrive, and is still alive in much of Guatemala, as well as areas of Mexico. Language is one illustration of Mayan culture that survived the trials of time. What are others, perhaps still visible today, and what arguments can be made to explain how they survived the encounter? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Adams, Richard E., ed. The Origins of Maya Civilization. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977.	Though dated, this collection of essays provides an introduction to various aspects of Mayan civilization, from Olmec and Mayan connections to the warfare of the Maya and Mayan art.	** Restall, Matthew. Maya Conquistador. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.	Restall offers a concise overview of the encounter between Spaniards and indigenous populations in Mexico, and then provides a valuable collection of Maya primary sources, translated into English, that give Maya perspectives of the encounter.	________. The Maya World: Yucatec Culture and Society, 1550—1850. Stanford: Stanford	University Press, 1997.	This book is a scholarly treatment of the Maya following the encounter. Some chapters may be helpful for students who already have an understanding of Mayan society and who are interested in the ways colonization challenged Mayan ways of life.	Rice, Prudence M. Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos. Austin:	University of Texas Press, 2004.	Rice \'s recent monograph focuses on the classic period of Mayan civilization, from the mid-100s through the mid-900s, highlighting the role of the Mayan calendar and conceptions of time in political organization.	** Sharer, Robert J. The Ancient Maya , 5th ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. The Ancient Maya is the most thorough account of pre-Columbian Mayan civilization in English, with multiple sections on culture. Its more than seven hundred pages will require students to select readings from its chapters, but the book is a good starting point. Other Resources: Guatemala Mexico The Aztec Empire The Inca Empire Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[44]=new Array(45,"topics/topic27.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Progress; Neocolonialism	Millenarian movements, organized partly in expectation of the Christian millennium (the second coming of Christ and the end of the world as we know it), have occurred with some frequency in Brazilian history. The largest and most famous millenarian event in Brazilian history was the prophet Antonio Conselheiro \'s holy city of Canudos, created and destroyed during the 1890s in the arid backlands of northeastern Brazil. Other major millenarian events have occurred in southern Brazil. Importantly, millenarianism is not just about religion. It always has political implications, and most of the time it seems a response to the changing conditions of people \'s lives. Millenarian movements are truly mass movements. Papers on Brazilian millenarianism normally focus on Canudos, but they should also give some account of the broader phenomenon. The sertão of Northeastern Brazil is the region most associated with millenarianism, but related events have occurred in many other parts of Latin America, notably Mexico. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Millenarian movements often seem to offer a way out, an alternative path, in moments of spiritual and material crisis. What alternatives were offered by the millenarian movement in Canudos, the millenarian visions of the Caste War in Mexico, or the Contestado rebellion in Brazil? How do the moments of spiritual and material crisis envisioned by the movements compare? The religious connection to the millennium, and the association of nonreligious millenarian movements with a belief in the end of the world, is a powerful initial uniting idea and force. After all, talking about the end of the world does get people \'s attention. But what held millenarian communities together, year after year, when the world did not end? How have major millenarian movements like Canudos been treated in national history? Are you familiar with millenarian movements in U.S. history? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Diacon, Todd A. Millenarian Vision, Capitalist Reality: Brazil \'s Contestado Rebellion, 1912—1916. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991.	This readable account deals with a millenarian movement in Southern Brazil, seeking an answer to the question of why people joined the movement.	Dumond, Don E. The Machete and the Cross: Campesino Rebellion in Yucatan. Lincoln:	University of Nebraska Press, 1997.	Like Reed (below), Dumond focuses on Mexico \'s millenarian caste war.	** Graziano, Frank. The Millennial New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.	An overview of millenarianism in Latin America, with examples from Mexico to Peru to Brazil.	** Levine, Robert M. Vale of Tears: Revisiting the Canudos Massacre in Northeastern	Brazil, 1893—1897. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.	A useful survey of Brazilian millenarianism as well as the best detailed account of Canudos.	Pessar, Patricia R. From Fanatics to Folk: Brazilian Millenarianism and Popular Culture.	Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.	An anthropological approach that views the problem in a broader cultural context.	** Reed, Nelson A. The Caste War of Yucatán, rev. ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press,	2001.	An old-fashioned narrative account of a millenarian movement that occurred in Mexico \'s Yucatán peninsula in the second half of the nineteenth century, pitting the Maya against the state. Other Resources: Brazil Religion Arts and Literature Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[45]=new Array(46,"topics/topic28.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neoliberalism	A look at the North America Free Trade agreement is a way of understanding globalization in Mexico. During the 1990s especially, tariff reduction (often referred to as apertura , or opening) was a basic goal on the neoliberal agenda in Latin America. NAFTA, as a specific and limited instance of economic opening within a regional framework, offers the chance to observe the detailed impacts of globalization. A paper on NAFTA should briefly discuss the basic provisions of the agreement for the elimination of tariffs between Mexico, Canada, and the United States. It should also carefully consider the empirical evidence concerning the practical outcome of NAFTA. Globalization is not, as is sometimes suggested, the irresistible and inevitably positive shape of things to come. It has great potential for both good and ill, often at the same time. Sorting out the good from the ill, and weighing them against each other, requires considerable information, analytical clarity, and objectivity. Careful consideration of these matters is essential, because an expansion of such arrangements to the rest of Latin America is now under consideration: CAFTA for Central America and FTAA for the entire hemisphere. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What have been the salient impacts of NAFTA in Mexico and the United States? How do they differ from initial predictions? Can you see effects of NAFTA in your daily life? Can Mexicans see it in theirs? Opposition to NAFTA exists on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border, though for different motivations. What are some of the defining issues opponents rally around, and how do these differ from one side of the border to the other? Are these same concerns present in debates surrounding other proposed regional free trade areas? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bacon, David. The Children of NAFTA: Labor Wars on the U.S./Mexico Border . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.	** Hellman, Judith. Mexican Lives. New York: New Press, 1994.	Mexico \'s economic opening from the perspective of Mexicans of various walks of life. Other Resources: Mexico Latin American Migration to the United States Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[46]=new Array(47,"topics/topic29.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Neocolonialism; Nationalism	The Caribbean has been a major playing field for the great powers of the Atlantic world, from Spain, France, and Great Britain in earlier centuries, to the United States today. As a result, the nations of the Caribbean have been more in the shadow of colonialism than have the nations of mainland Latin America. Puerto Rico and Cuba did not become independent with the rest of Latin America in the 1820s. In 1898, U.S. forces liberated Puerto Rico and Cuba from Spain but continued to exercise a measure of control over both. The national sovereignty of the Dominican Republic has faced similar challenges. Therefore, the national identities of Caribbean countries constitute an interesting problem. Cuban national identity was defined partly in emulation of the United States, partly against it. Dominican national identity has been constructed in contrast to Haiti. Puerto Rican national identity, without a sovereign state or majority aspirations to create one, raises interesting problems of its own. A paper on national identities in the Caribbean should take into account these different modes of constructing identity, noting the cohesive power of defining oneself as like or unlike others. While students may want to narrow their focus to one country, they should keep in mind the general framework in which national identities developed in the Caribbean region as a whole. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: A national identity does not depend on national independence, as the Kurds, Palestinians, and Puerto Ricans can attest. How did Caribbean identities develop even in the absence of national sovereignty? Nations and national identities are often represented through a standard set of symbols and features, usually including a flag, an anthem, a set of dates of decisive moments in the nation \'s history, language or dialect, and, among others, clothing, pastimes, and cuisine. Officially or unofficially, racial makeup is also part of the national kit. How did race play into the emergence of national identities in the Caribbean? Understanding where feelings of national identity come from is an interesting problem, going far beyond where one is born. What factors can you identify that shape your sense of national identity? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Austerlitz, Paul. Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity. With a foreword by Robert Farris Thompson. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997.	Glasser, Ruth. My Music is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and their New York	Communities, 1917—1940. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.	Guerra, Lillian. Popular Expression and National Identity in Puerto Rico: The Struggle for	Self, Community, and Nation. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998.	Morris, Nancy. Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995.	** Pérez, Jr., Louis A. On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality and Culture. Chapel Hill:	The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press, 1999.	Pérez shows how Cubans used associations with the United States (for example, a taste for baseball) to contrast themselves against Spain (with its national spectacle, the bullfight) beginning in the late 1800s. Other Resources: Cuba Dominican Republic Haiti Puerto Rico Neo-African Religions Music and the Conquered World African Background Religion Latin American Migration to the U.S. Slavery and Abolition Sugar Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[47]=new Array(48,"topics/topic30.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues; Neoliberalism	Santería and Candomblé are neo-African religions practiced in Cuba and Brazil, respectively. Both are basically New World versions of the religious beliefs of the Yoruba people of West Africa, with admixtures of other African influences. They have often been described as syncretic religious practices, a word that suggests a hybrid mixture with Christianity, because both Santería and Candomblé use the images of Catholic saints to represent the various deities. As the workings of these religions have become better understood by scholars in recent years, it has become clear that there is a wide range of ways in which Catholic elements are incorporated. They may be superficial or deeply significant. In addition, some practitioners of Santería and Candomblé have re-Africanized their religion through direct contact with African sources. Some practitioners of Santería and Candomblé remain simultaneously devout Catholics. Importantly, aside from considerations of syncretism, African religions have evolved in Cuba and Brazil according to their own internal logic, the way any religion evolves when it enters a new social setting. In that sense, these religions may be called neo-African. Neo-African religions have always embodied resistance to psychic absorption into the slave owners \' world and, indirectly or directly, they always constitute remembrance of an ancestral homeland. A paper on this complex topic should probably focus on Brazil, Cuba, or Haiti (which has an exact analog of Santería or Candomblé, called Vodou ). Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: 1.	To what extent were slaves able to practice African religious traditions during the colonial period? How did fusing these practices with elements of Catholicism allow slaves to circumvent limitations placed on religion by colonial authorities? 2.	When and where were Santería and Candomblé ceremonies held during the colonial period? How did these ceremonies change following independence, and how did the attitude of new republican states toward neo-African religions differ from that of colonial administrators? 3.	Neo-African religions served as a form of resistance to slavery partly through their ability to inspire group identity connected to Africa. How did the appeal of these religions evolve in the twentieth century? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bastide, Roger. The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpretation of Civilizations. Translated by Helen Sebba. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.	Though dated and somewhat dense, this monograph presents a wealth of information in a readable narrative.	** Brandon, George. Santería from Africa to the New World: The Dead Sell Memories.	Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.	This book presents a concise and informative history of the African roots and new world flowers of Santería, engaging questions of economics, power structures, and collective identities.	Crook, Larry, and Randal Johnson, eds. Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social	Mobilization. UCLA Latin American Studies, 86. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin	American Center Publications, n.d.	This edited volume contains a handful of short essays on Candomblé.	De Queirós Mattoso, Kátia M. To Be a Slave in Brazil, 1550—1888. Translated by Arthur	Goldhammer. With a foreword by Stuart Schwartz. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers	University Press, 1986.	Contains an accessible treatment of the formation of these religions in Brazil.	Desmangles, Leslie G. Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti. Chapel	Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.	This scholarly, readable book is an excellent look at Vodou and the Church in Haiti.	** Galembo, Phyllis. Divine Inspiration: From Benin to Bahia. Albuquerque: University of	New Mexico Press, 1993.	This collection of photographs taken in Nigeria and Brazil also contains accessible and informative text.	González-Wippler, Migene. Legends of Santería, new and rev. ed. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn	Publications, 1994.	As the title suggests, this is a collection of legends about Santería deities.	**_______. Santería: African Magic in Latin America , 2nd rev. ed. Plainview, NY: Original	Publications, 1992.	A good overall introduction.	** Murphy, Joseph. Working the Spirit: Ceremonies of the African Diaspora. Boston:	Beacon Press, 1994.	Murphy offers a comparative view of neo-African religion in Brazil and the Caribbean.	Sweet, James H. Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-	Portuguese World, 1441—1770. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,	2003.	Sweet \'s study is a scholarly treatment, though students will find parts two and three are helpful for understanding the colonial roots of the mixing between Catholicism and African religious traditions.	Wedel, Johan. Santería Healing: A Journey into the Afro-Cuban World of Divinities, Spirits,	and Sorcery. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.	This scholarly anthropological approach to Santería is another good introduction, with a focus on the healing powers of Santería and an assessment of the practice at the end of the twentieth century. Other Resources: Brazil Cuba Haiti African Background Slavery and Abolition Religion Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[48]=new Array(49,"topics/topic31.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Progress	Only Brazil, in all of American history, had a durable monarchy. Brazil was ruled from a New World throne from the time that Portugal \'s mad queen Maria arrived in Brazil in 1808, along with her son João, the prince regent. When Maria died in 1816, the prince regent became João VI, and he ruled both Brazil and Portugal from Rio de Janeiro. João was succeeded on the Brazilian throne by his son, Pedro I, and then by his grandson, Pedro II. The independent Brazilian Empire ended after eighty years in 1889, when Brazilian republicans took power with a military coup. The Brazilian Empire chalked up a record of stability that contrasted remarkably with the tumultuous political history of the Spanish American republics. On the other hand, this stability was built on the backs of African slaves who composed as much as a third of the population in the early 1800s. Still, Brazil \'s emperors were interesting and, occasionally, admirable people. Biographies are the natural medium for approaching the history of a monarchy, and fortunately there are some good ones in English. A paper on the Brazilian Empire should note the stability that characterized Brazilian history of the 1800s in contrast to that of Spanish America. Students could focus on how the emperors ruled, then consider the fall of the empire as the march of progress gathered force throughout Latin America. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What are the broad outlines of the story of Brazilian independence, and what role did the monarchy have in it? Were Pedro I and his son Pedro II comparable as emperors? What brought down the Brazilian Empire despite its record of impressive stability? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825—91. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.	An exhaustive scholarly life-and-times biography.	** ________. Princess Isabel of Brazil: Gender and Power in the Nineteenth Century.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002.	Beattie, Peter M., ed. The Human Tradition in Modern Brazil. The Human Tradition Around	the World, 7. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2004.	The first two parts of this book of essays will introduce students to individual Brazilians of the imperial period.	** Bethell, Leslie, ed. Brazil, Empire and Republic: 1822—1930. New York: Cambridge	University Press, 1989.	A scholarly overview excerpted from the Cambridge History of Latin America.	Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and Portugal, 1798—1834.	Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986.	Macaulay provides a biography of Dom Pedro and an account of Brazil \'s early period of independence.	Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. The Emperor \'s Beard: Dom Pedro II and His Tropical Monarchy of Brazil. Translated by John Gledson. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004.	A lengthy but interesting and readable cultural history of the empire.	** Viotti da Costa, Emilia. The Brazilian Empire: Myths & Histories, rev. ed. Chapel Hill:	The University of North Carolina Press, 2000.	Collected essays. Other Resources: Brazil Paraguay on the Edge of the Storm Slavery and Abolition Coffee Sugar Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[49]=new Array(50,"topics/topic32.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Revolution; Reaction	Chile has produced a rich artistic heritage well known throughout Latin America. Gabriela Mistral and particularly Pablo Neruda, the two Chilean poets who became Nobel laureates in the mid-twentieth century, were read from Mexico to Argentina. Similarly, Chilean folk music was heard throughout Latin America during the 1960s, when it was an important vehicle of protest. For Latin Americans of the sixties generation, Chilean folk music constituted the sound track of student radicalism, the way Bob Dylan and Joan Baez (among others) did for young people in the United States. An interesting research paper could put La Nueva Canción, or New Song, movement in the context of the tumultuous 1960s and early 1970s. Of particular note is the figure of Victor Jara, who emerged from the group around Violeta Parra to become the most important voice of protest music during the early 1970s, when the Chilean left reached high tide. Jara was tortured and executed during the U.S.-supported 1973 military takeover of Chile by General Augusto Pinochet. The center of the movement later moved to Cuba. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Who were the musicians that gathered around Violeta Parra to found the Nueva Canción movement? What were their backgrounds, and who were their audiences? The Nueva Canción movement spread throughout Latin America in part due to the resonance of its political message, but also because Chilean (and Argentine) artists toured widely after being forced into exile. How did military rulers treat artistic expression in the 1970s, and what were the consequences for makers of the Nueva Canción movement, as well as for other Latin American artists of the period? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Dicks, Ted, ed. Victor Jara: His Life and Songs. With a foreword by Pete Seeger. Translations by Joan Jara. London: Elm Tree Books, 1976.	This book offers a synopsis of Jara \'s life and provides a selection of Jara \'s songs, with music and lyrics translated from Spanish into English.	González Rodríguez, Juan Pablo. \'Inti-Illimani \' and the Artistic Treatment of Folklore. Latin American Music Review 10, no. 2 (1989): 267—86.	** Jara, Joan. Victor: An Unfinished Song. London: Jonathan Cape, 1983.	Victor Jara \'s wife recounts her time with him and the development of his music.	Mattern, Mark. Popular Music and Redemocratization in Santiago, Chile, 1973—1989. Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 16 (1997): 101—13.	Morris, Nancy E. Canto porque es necesario cantar: The New Song Movement in Chile,	1973—1983. Research Paper Series, 16. Albuquerque: Latin American Institute,	University of New Mexico, 1984.	Morris \'s article is one of the more complete overviews of the movement written in English.	Moreno, Albrecht. Violeta Parra and \'La Nueva Canción Chilena. \' Studies in Latin	American Popular Culture 5 (1986): 108—26.	Neustadt, Robert Alan. Music as Memory and Torture: Sounds of Repression and Protest in	Chile and Argentina. Chasqui 33, no. 1 (2004): 128—37. Other Resources: Chile From Peron to Dirty War Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[50]=new Array(51,"topics/topic33.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Progress	Paraguay \'s history is especially interesting in the immediate post-independence period. Paraguay \'s dictatorial post-independence rulers strictly limited the presence of outsiders when most Latin American countries were opening their doors to European trade. The results were mixed: on the one hand, an authoritarian government with narrow restrictions on personal freedoms, first under the mysterious Doctor Francia, who ruled until 1840, then under Francia \'s successor, Carlos Antonio López, and his son, Francisco Solano López; and on the other, relative calm and material well-being for the Paraguayan people, along with certain advances such as the construction of the continent \'s first railroad, without the foreign loans that almost always accompanied such projects. Like many authoritarian rulers, however, those of Paraguay cultivated military power and did not hesitate to exercise it. Paraguay \'s landlocked geographical location led to frictions with Argentina and Brazil, and the result was South America \'s greatest international conflict ever, the War of the Triple Alliance. Students interested in Paraguay and this catastrophic war should direct their attention to the post-independence stability of the small republic, compared to other Spanish American republics, and the tensions that grew between Paraguay and its neighbors, Argentina and Brazil. A paper on the war should highlight the pre-war political context, as well as the tragic consequences Paraguayans suffered during and after the years of fighting. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Paraguay became independent under the dictatorial rule of the famous José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia. What was Francia \'s rule like? How were elements of it continued in the López years? Juan Manuel de Rosas (the prominent caudillo who ruled the Río de la Plata from 1829—1852) considered Paraguay a renegade Argentine province and refused to recognize its independence. This was not the only source of tension between the two countries, however. What other points of contention between Paraguay and Argentina—and between Paraguay and Brazil—pushed the small, landlocked country closer to the edge? Some journalists have compared Paraguayan president Francisco Solano López, who built up a powerful army and began the War of the Triple Alliance with a preemptive strike against Argentina, to Iraqi ruler Saddam Hussein. How useful is the comparison? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Kraay, Hendrik, and Thomas L. Whigham, eds. I Die with My Country: Perspectives on the Paraguayan War, 1864—1870. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.	This recent collection of essays presents students with detailed analyses of different aspects of the war, from draft resistance to the role women played.	Leuchars, Chris. To the Bitter End: Paraguay and the War of the Triple Alliance. Westport,	CT: Greenwood Press, 2002.	Though a military history, this book introduces some of the basic outlines of the history of the war.	Tuck, Lily. The News from Paraguay: A Novel. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2004.	Tuck \'s recent historical novel deals with the most popular love story of the war, involving Elisa Lynch and Francisco Solano López.	** Whigham, Thomas L. The Paraguayan War . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.	Whigham provides an excellent introduction to the war—a first stop for any student interested in learning more. Other Resources: Paraguay Brazil Argentina Uruguay Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[51]=new Array(52,"topics/topic34.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible; Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Revolution; Neoliberalism	The silver mines of Potosí are surely among the most famous in world history. To be worth a Potosí was once a common expression to describe enormous riches. Indigenous people knew about Potosí silver before the Spanish arrived, but they did not exploit it on a large scale. Beginning in the 1570s, the Spanish made the mountain of silver into an enormous quasi-industrial conglomeration. But the miners were forced labor crews of indigenous people, organized by the old imperial Inca labor draft called the mita . The mines of Potosí produced their richest loads in 1600s, declining in importance thereafter, relative to other silver-producing locations. Mexican silver production eclipsed Peru \'s in the 1700s. A paper on Potosí might also explore the culture of more recent indigenous Bolivian miners who work in the tin mines. Miners played an important role in the Bolivian Revolution of the 1950s. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Mining in the mountain of silver during the 1600s was a large-scale operation that depended on forced labor—a sort of slave plantation in the bowels of the Andes. But just how many laborers worked in the mines of Potosí, and how many lost their lives to the exploitation of silver? Potosí generated a network of economies and services revolving around silver mining. Raising mules to transport the precious metal and making cloth to clothe the miners were just two of the activities connected to the mine. What were others, and how far away from the mountain did they stretch? Mining has continued to be a major economic activity in Bolivia. In the 1900s, however, the main product was tin. How did tin mining affect the indigenous miners, and what political roles have these played in the twentieth century? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bakewell, Peter. Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosí, 1545—1650. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.	Students interested in the mita and Potosí \'s many generations of miners should begin with this concise study.	________. Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosí: The Life and Times	of Antonio López de Quiroga. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988.	Cole, Jeffrey A. The Potosí Mita, 1573—1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes.	Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.	Cole looks closely at the origins of the mita and how it was administered.	Nash, June. I Spent My Life in the Mines: The Story of Juan Rojas, Bolivian Tin Miner. New	York: Columbia University Press, 1992.	Nash narrates the biography of Juan Rojas, largely as he told it to her. Though lengthy, the narrative is a good introduction to the perspective of miners in the twentieth century.	________. We Eat the Mines and the Mines Eat Us: Dependency and Exploitation in	Bolivian Tin Mines. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.	** Tandeter, Enrique. Coercion and Market: Silver Mining in Colonial Potosí, 1692—1826.	Translated by Richard Warren. Albuquerque, 1993.	Tandeter provides a thorough and engaging scholarly overview of mining in Potosí, a basic book for students interested in the topic. Other Resources: Bolivia Mexico Peru Labor History The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780—1783 Slavery and Abolition Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[52]=new Array(53,"topics/topic35.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible	Possibly for reasons of climate, settlements of escaped slaves, called quilombos and palenques , were much more frequent in Latin America than in the United States. The unfamiliarity of the English equivalent term maroon settlement aptly indicates the infrequency of the phenomenon in U.S. history. In contrast, quilombos, great and small, existed by the hundred throughout Brazil. There was a particularly large and lasting one in the heart of the Amazon rainforest, for example. But none can rival the kingdom of Palmares, inland from the sugar coast of Northeastern Brazil, where African slaves fled from plantations and created backland village settlements governed by African social institutions. Palmares lasted for most of a century, but many tiny quilombos and palanques lasted only a few years. Students interested in Spanish American palenques should direct their attention to the circum-Caribbean region. A paper on quilombos and palenques can explore the ways in which runaway slave communities tried to reproduce familiar African lifeways. Another aspect worth investigating is the complex relations that existed between quilombos or palenques and the slave societies from which they had escaped. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did maroon societies in different regions of Latin America differ from each other—be it in size, ethnic makeup, or ability to ward off Spaniards and Portuguese? Slaves and free blacks in Latin America often formed nations , or groups linked by a common linguistic heritage and the same geographic roots in Africa. Were these sources of community driving forces behind the development of quilombos and palenques? What other factors led to the formation of the strong bonds and group identities that characterized some maroon societies? To the extent that maroon societies were able to recreate African social institutions and practices in Latin America, what can quilombos and palenques suggest about the power of slaves to preserve African heritage and, on the other side, the efforts of colonial powers to integrate slaves into the new colonial societies? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Anderson, Robert Nelson. The \'Quilombo \' of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in 17th Century Brazil. Journal of Latin American Studies, 28, no. 3 (1996): 545—566.	Students will enjoy this well-written introduction to the largest and most important quilombo, Brazil \'s Palmares.	De Queirós Mattoso, Kátia M. To Be a Slave in Brazil, 1550—1888. Translated by Arthur	Goldhammer. With a foreword by Stuart Schwartz. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers	University Press, 1986. To be a Slave in Brazil is denser reading than other listings here, but it is comprehensive and authoritative.	Baquaqua, Mahommah Gardo. The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage	from Slavery to Freedom in Africa and America. Princeton: Markus Wiener, 2001.	Baquaqua \'s life story, including his youth in Africa, his slavery in Brazil, and his time as a maroon in the United States.	Kent, R. K. Palmares: An African State in Brazil. The Journal of African History, 6, no. 2 (1965): 161—75.	A dated but classic piece of scholarship in English on maroon societies in Brazil.	** Manzano, Juan Francisco. The Autobiography of a Slave / Autobiografía de un esclavo. Translated by Evelyn Picon Garfield. With an introduction and modernized Spanish version by Ivan A. Schulman. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996.	A slave autobiography, the only known source of its kind from Latin America.	** Montejo, Esteban. Biography of a Runaway Slave. Edited by Miguel Barnet. Translated	by W. Nick Hill. Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press, 1994.	This engaging narrative account of Montejo \'s life as a slave, then a runaway slave or cimarrón , and then a paid worker will introduce students to the world of slavery in nineteenth-century Cuba. Montejo lived to be more than one hundred years old and recounted his life to Barnet.	** Price, Richard, ed. Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas, 3rd ed.	Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1996.	This collection of essays offers the most complete portrait of runaway-slave communities in the Americas, with Brazil, the Caribbean, and Spanish America receiving the most attention. Students looking for an overview of quilombos and palenques in Latin America will want to begin here. Other Resources: Brazil Cuba Dominican Republic Haiti Puerto Rico Slavery and Abolition African Background Neo-African Religions Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[53]=new Array(54,"topics/topic36.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Progress	Latin America provides a historical laboratory for the study of African slavery and abolition. Plantations with enslaved workers of African descent existed from Cuba to Venezuela, Colombia, and Peru—not to mention Brazil, the greatest slavery-saturated society of all. In addition, slavery was also a profoundly urban phenomenon in Latin America. Even in regions like Argentina, without plantation agriculture, slaves worked as artisans and domestic servants in every colonial city founded by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In the early 1800s, a quarter of the population of Buenos Aires was made up of black slaves. Lima and Mexico City, places not associated today with inhabitants of African descent, were once full of slaves, too. In most parts of Latin America, slavery declined immediately after independence and was abolished totally around 1850. The great exceptions are Brazil and Cuba, where the importation of slaves actually accelerated during those years and abolition did not come until the 1880s. Given this panorama, historians have produced studies that allow them to compare slavery, and resistance to it—also abolition, and what followed it—in a vast variety of situations across hundreds of years. Students, too, can take a comparative approach. The literature on slavery and abolition in Latin America is vast, and the titles below constitute only an initial smattering of what students can access in a good library. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Why were the first slaves brought to Latin America? How do the numbers of slaves taken to Brazil and the Caribbean during the colonial period compare with those taken to North America? What did slaves bring with them to the New World, and what new religious traditions, social structures, and blending of cultures (not to mention gene pools) emerged out of their contact with Indians, other slaves, and people of European descent in Latin America? Many slaves were offered their freedom in exchange for participating on the patriot side during the wars of independence, although after the wars many Creole elites were slow to act on their word. What were some of the debates surrounding abolition in different regions, and in what different ways did African slavery finally come to an end in Latin America? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Andrews, George Reid. Afro-Latin America, 1800—2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.	Andrews \' history of Latin Americans of African descent is the ideal starting point for students interested in this topic.	Bethell, Leslie. The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave	Trade Question, 1807—1869. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.	A thorough, scholarly treatment of abolition in Brazil and the influence Great Britain exercised in ending the slave trade in America.	Conrad, Robert Edgar. The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850—1888, 2nd ed. Malabar,	FL: Krieger, 1993.	A concise look at the abolitionist movement in Brazil, the last country in the hemisphere to end slavery. The study also offers a short background to the history of the slave trade in Brazil.	________. World of Sorrow: The African Slave Trade to Brazil. Baton Rouge: Louisiana	State University Press, 1986.	Focuses specifically on the 1800s.	Curtin, Philip D. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census. Madison: The University of Wisconsin	Press, 1969.	A classic, well-written overview of the slave trade, broad, but also providing a wealth of specific detail.	Davis, Darién J., ed. Slavery and Beyond: The African Impact on Latin America and the	Caribbean. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Books, 1995.	De Queirós Mattoso, Kátia M. To Be a Slave in Brazil, 1550—1888. Translated by Arthur	Goldhammer. With a foreword by Stuart Schwartz. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers	University Press, 1986.	Comprehensive and authoritative, though not easy reading.	Inikori, Joseph E., and Stanley L. Engerman, eds. The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on	Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Durham,	NC: Duke University Press, 1998.	Most of these essays look at the economics and demographic tolls of the slave trade. Students will benefit most from the introduction and chapters two, four, five, seven, twelve, and fourteen.	Karasch, Mary C. Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808—1850. Princeton: Princeton University	Press, 1987.	** Klein, Herbert S. The Atlantic Slave Trade. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.	One of the best surveys available on the slave trade.	** Mann, Mary Peabody. Juanita: A Romance of Real Life in Cuba Fifty Years Ago. Edited	and with an introduction by Patricia M. Ard. Charlottesville: University Press of	Virginia, 2000.	Mann was an abolitionist from the U.S. who visited some friends in Cuba for over a year. This novel is based on her experiences there and was written to show the evils of slavery. It wasn \'t published until after her death in the 1880s, but was actually written in the 1830s.	** Nabuco, Joaquim. Abolitionism: The Brazilian Antislavery Struggle. Translated and edited	by Robert Conrad. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1977.	An account by one of the main advocates of abolition in Brazil in the 1880s.	** Northrup, David, ed. The Atlantic Slave Trade, 2nd ed. With an introduction by David	Northrup. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.	This collection of essays (by many of the authors whose books are included in this list) is meant for the undergraduate classroom and for the nonspecialist.	Postma, Johannes. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Greenwood Guides to Historic Events	1500—1900. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003.	A recent overview with useful statistical data and a short selection of primary sources.	Skidmore, Thomas E. Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. New	York: Oxford University Press, 1974.	Surveys the debate surrounding abolition in nineteenth-century Brazil and of how race played into a sense of Brazilian identity in the first half of the twentieth century.	Vidal Luna, Francisco, and Herbert S. Klein. African Slavery in the Production of	Subsistence Crops: The Case of São Paulo in the Nineteenth Century. In David Eltis,	Frank D. Lewis, and Kenneth L. Sokoloff, eds. Slavery in the Development of the	Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. 120—49.	A recent overview with useful statistical data and a short selection of primary sources. Other Resources: African Background Quilombos and Palenques Sugar Labor History Coffee Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",19);arrFiles[54]=new Array(55,"topics/topic37.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: The Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues; Neocolonialism	Unquestionably, sugar is the mother of all Latin America \'s export commodities. Sugarcane was being harvested by indigenous slaves on Brazilian plantations already in the 1540s, and by African slaves already in the 1580s. Sugarcane was cultivated by the Dutch during their occupation of part of Brazil in the 1600s, then transferred by them to the Caribbean, where it sank deep roots. Caribbean locations like Cuba, Haiti, and Barbados became hotspots of world sugar production. Sugar plantations could eventually be found everywhere in Latin America, from Mexico to Argentina, although the main centers of production remained Brazil and the Caribbean. Even apart from slavery, which invariably accompanied sugar production in the colonial period, sugar plantations have never been nice places to work. Because of its high capital requirements, sugar production seems to create, and then reproduce, extremes of wealth and poverty in the lands where it takes hold. Students can approach the history of sugar in Latin America from many angles. Slave culture that developed on sugar plantations, forms of resistance to the hard labor of sugar cultivation, and the markets and consumers that drove the sugar trade during the colonial period are just a few possible avenues. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Where were the primary markets for sugar, and what spurred consumers to develop a taste for sugar? What economic networks developed thanks to Latin American sugar production? What were the living conditions of workers on sugar plantations, and how did these vary from place to place? How did sugar plantations compare with other kinds? Can you characterize economic, demographic, and social patterns in societies where sugar cultivation became the dominant economic activity? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Ayala, César J. American Sugar Kingdom: The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, 1898—1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.	** Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York:	Viking, 1985.	A classic overview of sugar cultivation.	** Paquette, Robert. Sugar is Made with Blood: The Conspiracy of La Escalera and the	Conflict between Empires over Slavery in Cuba. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan	University Press, 1988.	A study of the 1844 rebellion, the book also offers an engaging account about plantation life, conditions, and what Cuba was like during the period.	** Pérez, Jr., Louis A., ed. Slaves, Sugar, and Colonial Society: Travel Accounts of Cuba,	1801—1899. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1992	A collection of travel writings that allow students to read firsthand accounts of Cuban slavery.	Scarano, Francisco A. Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce,	1800—1850. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.	A scholarly treatment of sugar cultivation in Puerto Rico, situating the plantation economy in the larger context of the history of sugar in the Caribbean.	** Schwartz, Stuart B. Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia,	1550—1835. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.	Students interested in the history of sugar in Brazil will want to consult this detailed study.	________, ed. Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic	World, 1450—1680. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004.	A collection of essays that update Mintz \'s classic work (above).	Sims Taylor, Kit. Sugar and the Underdevelopment of Northeastern Brazil, 1500—1970.	Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1978. Other Resources: Brazil Cuba Haiti Labor History Slavery and Abolition Quilombos and Palenques Coffee Lima and Coastal Peru Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[55]=new Array(56,"topics/topic38.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	The Aztec empire presents us with an enigmatic combination of beauty and ugliness. The formal language of Moctezuma \'s imperial court was as delicate as a flower, yet the Aztec class structure was entirely as degrading and hierarchical as anything in medieval Europe. Aztec sculpture demonstrates a highly refined aesthetic sense, yet the sculptures accompanied habitual, systematic human sacrifice on a massive scale. And the most famous sacrifice, the excision of the still beating hearts of captured enemy warriors atop pyramids, was not the only kind. There was an entire sacred calendar involving various kinds of human sacrifice, including the sacrifice of young women chosen as a special honor to delight the bloodthirsty Aztec gods. In addition, many sacrificial victims were eaten. A paper on the Aztec empire will naturally touch on this horrifying but indubitably fascinating facet, yet it should in addition give some account of the complex social order of Tenochtitlan, its unusual construction in the middle of a lake, and its ingenious agricultural system. It should also describe the rapid growth of Aztec imperial power in the century before the arrival of Cortés, giving some sense of how Tenochtitlan fit in a larger context of Nahuatl-speaking city states. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did the Aztecs manage to develop an empire in such a short period of time, and what means were employed to hold the empire together? What was the Aztec social hierarchy like, and how did this social order play into the process of colonization? How did the encounter in Mesoamerica compare with the meeting of Spaniards and indigenous populations in South America and the Caribbean? Like the Inca Empire, the Aztec empire was young and on the rise when it was abruptly ended by the arrival of the Spaniards. How might world history have developed differently had the Spaniards not arrived when they did? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Carrasco, Davíd, with Scott Sessions. Daily Life of the Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth. The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998.	Carrasco, Davíd, and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, eds. Moctezuma \'s Mexico: Visions of the Aztec World, rev. ed. With a foreword by James N. Corbridge, Jr. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2003.	This edition of essays contains beautiful color illustrations of sculptures, jewelry, architecture, and so on that, as the title suggests, give readers a view of the Aztec world.	** Clendinnen, Inga. Aztecs: An Interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.	A fascinating and provocative book that examines the riddle of human sacrifice as few recent studies have done.	** Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. The Peoples of America. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.	A clearly written, well-organized, and thorough account.	Townsend, Richard F. The Aztecs, rev. ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2000.	This narrative is complemented by more than a hundred illustrations of Aztec artistic productions and architecture. Other Resources: Mexico The Inca Empire Araucanos Maya Civilization Disease Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",14);arrFiles[56]=new Array(57,"topics/topic39.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | -- Bibliography	The achievements of the Inca empire are easy to appreciate because they were, above all, practical. The complexities of Mesoamerican calendar systems and the intricacies of their artistic representations can be grasped only by sustained study. Anyone, on the other hand, can immediately appreciate the engineering feats of the Inca empire—the system of mountain roads and relay communications, the swinging bridges thrown through the sky across yawning Andean gorges, the walls made of many-sided stones that interlocked for anti-seismic effect. The grandeur of Mesoamerican pyramids is dimmed, in modern eyes, by the sacrificial uses to which many were put. It is easier to admire Inca administration of imperial resources to promote general welfare, such as the systematic storage and distribution of grain to alleviate famine. A paper on the Incas can explore these achievements without idealizing the Inca empire, as many have done. Andean history contains recurrent idealizations of the Inca empire for students to consider, however. Quechua-speaking indigenous people often looked to their Inca past for inspiration under Spanish rule. Tupac Amaru II embodied that impulse in the 1790s. And in the 1920s, a Peruvian Marxist intellectual named José Carlos Mariátegui idealized the Inca empire as an example of a state committed to the welfare of its people. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What role did Africans play in capturing slaves for trade with Europeans? How did slavery in Africa differ from slavery in the New World? What did slaves bring with them to the New World, and what new religious traditions, social structures, and blending of cultures (not to mention gene pools) emerged out of their contact with Indians, other slaves, and people of European descent in Latin America? In addition to race, where can African background be observed in Latin America today? -- Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bauer, Brian S. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.	A scholarly study of the Cuzco valley from the time of its first inhabitants to the fall of the Inca empire.	** D \'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002.	D \'Altroy \'s recent survey of the Incas and the empire is one of the most thorough in English. Though more geared for a scholarly audience, the narrative is readable and, overall, the book is a good source for undergraduates interested in the topic.	** Davies, Nigel. The Incas. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1995.	Designed for a general audience as well as specialists of the Andes, Davies \' overview traces the history of the Incas and the empire they built from its origins to its decline, making it an especially good starting point for further research.	** Malpass, Michael A. Daily Life in the Inca Empire. The Greenwood Press Daily Life	Through History Series. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996.	Written with the undergraduate student in mind, this book provides an excellent overview of the Inca empire.	Mariátegui, José Carlos. Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality. Translated by	Marjory Urquidi. With an introduction by Jorge Basadre. Austin: University of Texas	Press, 1971.	The first three chapters of this collection of essays, originally published in newspapers during the first half of the twentieth century, exemplify the ideological uses of the Inca past in Peru.	Niles, Susan A. The Shape of Inca History: Narrative and Architecture in an Andean Empire.	Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999.	Niles surveys the nature of sources for Inca history and suggests possible ways to make sense of the evidence.	Patterson, Thomas C. The Inca Empire: The Formation and Disintegration of a Pre-	Capitalist State. Oxford: Berg, 1991.	Patterson presents an anthropological take on the development and decline of the Inca state, looking closely at social class, the mechanics of the empire, and the formation of colonial society in the 1500s. Other Resources: Peru Bolivia Ecuador Potosí The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780—1783 Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[57]=new Array(58,"topics/topic40.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Postcolonial Blues; Nationalism	Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín were both called the Liberator. They are unquestionably Latin America \'s two greatest heroes of the wars for independence, 1810 1824. Yet in Bolívar \'s case, the title rang across the continent. San Martín was highly admirable—idealistic, conscientious, and persistent. In contrast to Bolívar, he was modest and self-effacing. But San Martín \'s methodical focus on training and logistics never seemed particularly glorious, and he was also, unfortunately for his posterior reputation, a monarchist. Bolívar was a more inspirational leader, and he was a master of public relations before that term was invented. Bolívar sacrificed his personal fortune to the cause of independence. And perhaps most importantly, Bolívar \'s forces won the final victory in Peru and Bolivia. While Argentine historians have not neglected San Martín, the historiography on Bolívar is incomparably more vast. Today, Bolívar \'s image has been given a stronger-than-ever official role by the government of Venezuela. A paper on the liberators should focus on the emotive power of these figures in the writing of national histories and the shaping of feelings of nationalism in the late 1800s and throughout the twentieth century. Of course the legacy of the liberators has changed over time since the 1800s, something else students should be aware of in their research. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What motivated the liberators to take up arms against the Spanish empire? How did the motivations of the patriot leadership, overall, compare to the motivations of rank-and-file patriots? What vision of the future organization of independent nations did various patriot leaders have in mind? Where did that vision come from? Patriot leaders like Bolívar and San Martín are remembered with fervor and their images have been vigorously cultivated over the last century. How, exactly, has this cultivation occurred, and what political purpose does it serve? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bolívar, Simón. El Libertador: Writings of Simón Bolívar. Translated by Frederick H. Fornoff. Edited with an introduction and notes by David Bushnell. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.	This recent compilation and translation of Bolívar \'s writings give students direct access to the thinking of one of the liberators.	Bushnell, David. Simón Bolívar: Liberation and Disappointment. New York: Pearson Longman, 2003.	Bushnell \'s new biography of El Libertador is designed for undergraduates and concisely introduces this towering figure in Latin American history.	Conway, Christopher B. The Cult of Bolívar in Latin American Literature. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003.	A scholarly study of Bolívar \'s changing image.	Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin America \'s Struggle for independence, 1810—1830. London:	John Murray, 2000.	This widely available journalistic retelling of the grand narratives and star figures of independence is readable but contains many errors.	Hamill, Jr., Hugh M. The Hidalgo Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence. Westport, CT:	Greenwood Press, 1981.	** Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808—1826, 2nd ed. New York: Norton,	1986.	Lynch provides an engaging synopsis of the wars of independence—a definite starting point for interested students.	Racine, Karen. Francisco de Miranda: A Transatlantic Life in the Age of Revolution.	Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002.	Racine paints the portrait of a key figure of independence, though one who never received the acclaim of a Bolívar or San Martín. Other Resources: Venezuela Argentina Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[58]=new Array(59,"topics/topic41.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Reaction	U.S. Protestants have been among the world \'s great missionaries. In the nineteenth century, the main U.S. missionaries were well-established Protestant denominations, such as the Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians. Especially prominent as missionaries in the twentieth century were representatives of newer varieties of Christian faith that emerged in the United States itself, such as Mormonism and Pentacostalism, both of which have had a special relationship to Latin America in their theology and history. The results are clear in the tremendous growth of non-Catholic varieties of Christian belief. Change has not always come without conflict. During the Cold War, U.S. missionaries and their Protestant congregations were politically oriented toward the right, contrasting with the left-oriented Catholic currents known as liberation theology. A paper on U.S. missionaries could find interesting sources in the rich English-language travel literature of the 1800s. Many were written by clergy, and most give a vivid sense of how Latin America looked through U.S. Protestant ideas. In addition, many U.S. students may find untapped sources of information in records kept by their own churches. Oral histories taken from those who have done mission work in Latin America constitute another possible primary source available to students. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did the motivations of U.S. missionaries of the 1800s differ from those seeking to promote newer brands of Christianity in the twentieth century? Despite efforts by the Catholic Church to combat the spread of Protestantism in Latin America, Protestant strains are attracting more followers every day. What do the new religions offer them that Catholicism doesn \'t? Since the encounter, religion has gone hand in hand with colonization, in many cases justifying horrendous behavior of those who preached moral superiority. What justifications do U.S. missionaries offer for taking their messages to Latin America, and what are the political leanings of their particular shade of Protestantism? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Chesnut, R. Andrew. Born Again in Brazil: The Pentecostal Boom and the Pathogens of Poverty. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.	Chesnut offers a perspective on the connections between the rise of Protestantism and the poor in Brazil, looking particularly at the factors that motivate people to adopt the new belief system.	Cleary, Edward L. and Hannah W. Stewart-Gambino, eds. Power, Politics, and Pentecostals in	Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997.	This collection of essays presents a broad picture of the roots Pentecostal groups are planting across Latin America.	Garrard-Burnett, Virginia, and David Stoll, eds. Rethinking Protestantism in Latin America.	Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993.	** Martin, David. Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America. Oxford:	Basil Blackwell, 1990.	Martin \'s accessible study provides a general overview of the spread of Protestantism in Latin America, with examples from Brazil, the Southern Cone, Central America, and the Caribbean.	Miller, Daniel R., ed. Coming of Age: Protestantism in Contemporary Latin America. Lanham,	MD: University Press of America, 1994.	Smith, Christian, and Joshua Prokopy, eds. Latin American Religion in Motion. New York:	Routledge, 1999.	** Stoll, David. Is Latin America Turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth.	Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.	Stoll provides a readable analysis of the spread of evangelical Protestantism in Latin America, emphasizing the mounting challenges faced by the Catholic Church and the influence of U.S. strains of evangelical Christianity. Other Resources: Religion Neo-African Religions The Virgin of Guadalupe Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[59]=new Array(60,"topics/topic42.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible; Postcolonial Blues; Neocolonialism; Nationalism	Cuban music has been internationally influential for well over a century. Few would question that the special genius of Cuban music lies in the confluence of European and African musical ideas. The chords of a Cuban son, played by the guitarist \'s left hand, might fit exactly into a Spanish song, but the right-hand rhythms would be quite different, their subtlety and variety unquestionably African. Cuban music, often under the misspelled, misapplied name rhumba, enjoyed a sustained U.S. vogue from the 1930s to the 1950s. Decades later, Cuban music returned to national prominence in the form of salsa . The name designated a New York version of Cuban son that incorporated urban lyrical themes and electric instruments. Puerto Ricans were prominent among salsa musicians, too. From New York, salsa spread throughout the Caribbean basin, where earlier waves of Cuban music had prepared the way. More recently there has been a revival of U.S. interest in mid-twentieth-century son , as exemplified (also driven) by the Buena Vista Social Club recording and film. A paper on the music and the conquered world should focus on the process of transculturation whereby African and European musical ideas blended in places like Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Brazil. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: In what settings did African and European musical ideas mix during the colonial period? How did music play into nationalist movements after independence? What forms of group identity were connected to musical ideas in the region by the early twentieth century? What role does Latin American music play in contemporary U.S. Latino identities? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Austerlitz, Paul. Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity. With a foreword by Robert Farris Thompson. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997.	** Béhauge, Gerard H., ed. Music and Black Ethnicity: The Caribbean and South America.	Miami: The North-South Center, University of Miami; New Brunswick: Transaction	Publishers, 1994.	This collection of essays provides a good introduction to many of the themes in the history of music in Latin America, especially those related to identity and ethnicity.	Carpentier, Alejo. Music in Cuba. Edited and with an introduction by Timothy Brennan.	Translated by Alan West-Durán. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001.	Originally published in 1946, Music in Cuba is a concise look at the history of music on the island from the early colonial period up to the early 1900s. It was written by one of twentieth-century Latin America \'s great novelists, who was also a musicologist and music producer.	Leymarie, Isabelle. Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz. New York: Continuum,	2002.	** Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean	Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995.	Manuel presents a readable portrait of Caribbean music history, touching on indigenous and African roots, and then giving readers a tour of musical currents and tradition on different islands.	McGowan, Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and the	Popular Music of Brazil, new ed. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.	The first chapter of this survey of Brazilian music offers a look at the history of musical ideas in Brazil.	Orovio, Helio. Cuban Music from A to Z. Translated by Ricardo Bardo Portilla and Lucy	Davies; revised by Sue Steward. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004. Cuban Music from A to Z is a reference book with entries on instruments, musicians, rhythms, just about everything else concerning Cuban music.	Pacini Hernandez, Deborah. Bachata: A Social History of Dominican Popular Music.	Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995.	Roy, Maya. Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to the Buena Vista Social Club and Timba	Cubana. Translated by Denise Asfar and Gabriel Asfar. Princeton: Markus Wiener	Publishers; London: Latin American Bureau, 2002.	Roy provides a concise historical overview of Cuban music from the musical rituals and creations of colonial slave populations to the turn of the twenty-first century. Other Resources: Cuba Brazil Puerto Rico Dominican Republic Colombia African Background National Identities in the Caribbean Arts and Literature Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[60]=new Array(61,"topics/topic43.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism	Much of the history of modern Mexico can be summed up in the Porfiriato and the revolution. The thirty-year rule of Porfirio Díaz is the obligatory starting place for any discussion of the 1910 Mexican Revolution—along with the Cuban Revolution, one of the two most significant in twentieth-century Latin America. But Porfirian rule can also be a topic in itself, a study of how the caudillos of mid-nineteenth-century Mexico were brought to heal, how the country \'s shifting and fractious politics were stabilized, and how the region \'s richest and most populous former Spanish colony was once again fully opened for international business. Díaz dropped out of the picture almost as soon as the revolution began and, from 1911—1920, a variety of forces competed to replace him. From 1920 to 1940, the Mexican Revolution should be understood as an ongoing process of social transformation. After 1940, however, that process of transformation ended, and the Mexican Revolution lived on mostly in official rhetoric alone. A paper on the Porfiriato could address Díaz \'s rule in the context of neocolonialism and lend attention to the rise in nationalist sentiments that it provoked. One focused on the Mexican Revolution should briefly discuss the Porfiriato and the years of fighting, then examine the process of social transformation between 1920 and 1940. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How was Porfirio Díaz able to establish and maintain control over Mexico for three decades? What comparisons can be made between Mexico in the Porfiriato and Mexico today? War is a powerful shaper of individual and political identities. What can you discover about the impact of the Mexican revolution—both the years of battle as well as their aftermath—on the sense of national identity in Mexico? What are the most important achievements and major failings of the Mexican Revolution? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Brunk, Samuel. Emiliano Zapata: Revolution and Betrayal in Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.	This recent biography is a good introduction to one of the legendary leaders of the great peasant movements of the revolution.	Cumberland, Charles C. Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero. Austin: University of	Texas Press, 1952.	________. Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years. Austin: University of Texas Press,	1972.	Both of these volumes are dated but useful staples in the bibliography on the revolution.	** Garner, Paul. Porfirio Díaz. Profiles in Power. London: Longman, 2001.	Garner provides a detailed look at the foundations of Porfirian Mexico, the progress and consequences of liberalism under Díaz \'s rule, and the Porfiriato in Mexican historiography.	** Gonzales, Michael J. The Mexican Revolution, 1910—1940. Albuquerque: University of New	Mexico Press, 2002.	** González, Luis. San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition. Translated by John	Upton. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974.	Gruening, Ernest. Mexico and Its Heritage. London: The Century, 1929.	An older but still-useful work.	Johns, Michael. The City of Mexico in the Age of Díaz. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.	This short book is a readable take on the Porfiriato through the lens of the changes occurring in Mexico City and the countryside.	Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Other Resources: Mexico Sandinistas vs. Marines Cuban Revolution From Peron to Dirty War The Revolutionary Left in El Salvador Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[61]=new Array(62,"topics/topic44.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Colonial Crucible; Independence	This most important of colonial rebellions shook the high Andes and sent shockwaves throughout Spanish America. The mestizo who called himself Tupac Amaru II claimed Inca descent and took that name in memory of Tupac Amaru I, an Inca resistance leader and, subsequently, folk hero who fought a rear-guard action against the conquest in the 1500s. Like the 1810 1811 Hidalgo rebellion in Mexico, Tupac Amaru \'s uprising was initially Americano, rather than indigenous, in focus—calling for an alliance among native-born whites, mestizos, and indigenous people against European-born Spaniards. Like Hidalgo \'s rebellion, however, Tupac Amaru \'s, once begun, became primarily indigenous and raged out of control, leaping south through the high plateaus like grass fire into Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia), where it set off another, more stubborn revolt. Finally, like Hidalgo \'s rebellion, Tupac Amaru \'s showed that multiclass rebellions of Americanos against Spaniards could easily become more radical wars against the entire white ruling class. As a result, native-born whites in Mexico and Peru were among the last on the continent to embrace the patriot cause during the wars of independence. A paper on the rebellion should look at the ethnic and class makeup of those joining in the fight and consider the appeal they found in following Tupac Amaru. It is also important to highlight the context of colonial reforms in which the rebellion broke out, as well as the impact it had on colonial administrators during the wars of independence. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What factors and conditions led to the outbreak of the rebellion, and how was it that Tupac Amaru was able to mobilize such widespread support? What were the consequences of Tupac Amaru \'s rebellion during the remaining colonial decades? What was the legacy of Tupac Amaru and the rebellion during the wars of independence? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Fisher, Lillian Estelle. The Last Inca Revolt, 1780—1783. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966.	Though an older study, Fisher \'s look at the rebellion is thorough and reads well.	** Flores Galindo, Alberto. The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru. In Daniel Castro, ed., Revolution and Revolutionaries: Guerrilla Movements in Latin America. Wilmington,	DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999.	Flores Galindo provides a succinct overview of the rebellion.	** Johnson, Lyman L., ed. Death, Dismemberment, and Memory: Body Politics in Latin	America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004.	Students will find the introduction and Ward Stavig \'s chapter on Tupac Amaru good starting points.	Robins, Nicholas A. Genocide and Millennialism in Upper Peru: The Great Rebellion of	1780—1782. With a foreword by Israel W. Charny. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.	Robins presents a scholarly treatment of the rebellion, emphasizing the toll fighting took on both sides and how revolts spread rapidly throughout the region.	Serulnikov, Sergio. Subverting Colonial Authority: Challenges to Spanish Rule in	Eighteenth-Century Southern Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.	This recent study explores peasant politics around Potosí during the late 1800s, in years leading up to the rebellion.	Stavig, Ward A. Ethnic Conflict, Moral Economy, and Population in Rural Cuzco on the	Eve of the Thupa Amaro II Rebellion. Hispanic American Historical Review, 68, no.	4 (1988): 737—70.	** ________. The World of Túpac Amaru: Conflict, Community, and Identity in Colonial	Peru. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.	Stavig \'s study of Tupac Amaru is one of the most complete in English.	Thomson, Sinclair. We Alone Will Rule: Native Andean Politics in the Age of Insurgency.	Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.	** Walker, Charles F. Smoldering Ashes: Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru,	1780—1840. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.	The introduction and first two chapters introduce students to Tupac Amaru and the rebellion \'s historical context. Other Resources: Peru Bolivia The Inca Empire Labor History Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[62]=new Array(63,"topics/topic45.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Independence; Nationalism; Revolution; Reaction	El Salvador exemplifies Latin America \'s revolutionary tradition. In the 1820s, El Salvador was the political base of Francisco Morazán, Central America \'s great caudillo of the post-independence period, representative of a revolutionary ideology called liberalism. Much later, El Salvador \'s Agustín Farabundo Martí, revolutionary leader of the 1920s, fought alongside Sandino against U.S. marines in Nicaragua, eventually leaving because he regarded Sandino as not revolutionary enough. And, without intending to, El Salvador \'s Archbishop Oscar Romero became one of the hemisphere \'s most poignant revolutionary martyrs during the Central American crisis of the 1980s. A student who wants to understand Salvadoran revolutionaries of the twentieth century should focus mostly on the 1980s but could also explore the testimony of Miguel Marmol, a firing-squad victim during the legendary Slaughter of 1932—a rare one who lived to tell the tale. Marmol \'s testimony was recorded and narrated by Salvadoran poet Roque Dalton in the 1960s. Available in English translation, the book constitutes one of Central America \'s more interesting Cold War testimonios . Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Revolutionaries of different epochs have shared the goal of political transformation. However, their social visions have varied greatly. What did Morazán share, and not share, with Martí and Romero? How did the Salvadoran crisis of the 1980s fit into the larger context of reaction in Latin America, and what part did U.S. policy toward El Salvador and Central America during the 1970s and 1980s have in the crisis? What were the outcome and some of the consequences (on demographics, politics, physical infrastructure, state institutions, and so on) of the revolutionary years of the 1980s? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Browning, David. El Salvador: Landscape and Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.	Browning \'s book provides an excellent view of the process by which El Salvador \'s indigenous Pipil people were reduced to the status of a starving peasantry-one of the roots of the rise of a revolutionary tradition there.	Byrne, Hugh. El Salvador \'s Civil War: A Study of Revolution. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner	Publishers, 1996.	Byrne offers a readable background to revolution in El Salvador, as well as a detailed look at the crisis throughout the 1980s.	** Dalton, Roque. Miguel Mármol. Translated by Kathleen Ross and Richard Schaaf. With a	preface by Margaret Randall and an introduction by Manilo Argueta. Willimantic,	CT: Curbstone Press, 1982.	Miguel Mármol is the memoir of the man whose name appears in the title.	Grenier, Yvon. The Emergence of Insurgency in El Salvador: Ideology and Political Will.	With a foreword by Mitchell A. Seligson. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,	1999.	** Montgomery, Tommie Sue. Revolution in El Salvador: From Civil Strife to Civil Peace,	2nd ed. With an introduction by Ignacio Martín-Baró and Rodolfo Cardenal. Boulder,	CO: Westview Press, 1995.	Like Byrne, Montgomery provides an overview of the roots of revolution, an up-close view of the period of conflict in the 1980s, and a look at the peace process that followed in the early 1990s, making this book a good starting point for students interested in the revolutionary left. Other Resources: U.S. Marines vs. Sandinistas El Salvador Nicaragua Honduras Latin American Migration to the United States Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[63]=new Array(64,"topics/topic46.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Encounter; Colonial Crucible; Independence	The Virgin Mary with an Indian face, Guadalupe is the most cherished symbol of Mexican identity. Her appearance to an indigenous youth by the name of Juan Diego in the 1530s did not immediately cause much of a stir. Clergy who heard the story did not place much stock in it—at least at the beginning. But soon after Diego offered miraculous proof of what he had seen, a bishop gave orders to build a church on the hill at Tepeyac, scene of the first appearance. Little could the bishop have imagined that the new shrine to Guadalupe in Tepeyac would become the second most visited Catholic shrine in the world. Mexican devotion to Guadalupe was clearly aided by her association with an Aztec deity, Tonantzin—the mother of the gods—whose sacred site was at Tepeyac. At first, the Spanish clergy actually encouraged the indigenous people to associate this vision of Mary with Tonantzin. Their ability to see something familiar in this European image of holiness obviously facilitated their acceptance of it and fueled their conversion to Christianity. A paper on the Virgin of Guadalupe should consider the process of transculturation that allowed for the Catholic Mary to become the representative of indigenous communities during colonization. It may also examine how this process is related to the Virgin of Guadalupe as the most treasured symbol of national identity in Mexico. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did Mexican devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe rise during the colonial period? What public role did the Virgin of Guadalupe play in the wars of independence? Have people of Mexican descent in the United States continued their devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Brading, D. A. Mexican Phoenix: Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition across Five Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.	** Brading \'s book is the most complete study on the history of the Virgin in Mexico.	Johnson, Maxwell E. The Virgin of Guadalupe: Theological Reflections of an Anglo-	Lutheran Liturgist. Boulder, New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002.	This is a work in comparative religious studies.	** Orsini Dunnington, Jacqueline. Guadalupe: Our Lady of New Mexico. Santa Fe: Museum	of New Mexico Press, 1999.	Smith, Jody Brant. The Image of Guadalupe: Myth or Miracle? Garden City, NY: Doubleday	& Company, 1983. Other Resources: Mexico Religion Race Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",13);arrFiles[64]=new Array(65,"topics/topic47.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Much of the southwestern United States was once Mexico. Some people of Mexican descent in California, Texas, or New Mexico can make the joke: We did not come to this country. It came to us. In fact, the U.S. study of Latin American history began with historians who wanted to understand the colonial background of that part of the United States. Today, the southwestern United States still shows strong cultural continuities with northern Mexico, partly because those continuities have been reinforced by continuing migration, but partly, too, because they have simply endured. At many points along the border, pairs of border towns face one another—one on the Mexican side, the other on the U.S. side. But Spanish is the dominant language of daily life on both sides of that divide. Most of the people on both sides are of Mexican descent. Their strong numerical dominance among U.S. Latinos is reflected, for example, in the Mexican flavor of the leading U.S. Spanish-language television network, Univision. On the other hand, a paper on U.S. Latinos should examine the strong differences that divide Mexican Americans from people of Caribbean descent in Florida and New York. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Are U.S. Latinos in your community predominantly of Mexican or Caribbean descent, or from South America? What factors help to understand the history of immigration from Latin America to your community or region? How have U.S. Latinos begun to shape U.S. politics over the past fifteen years? How have U.S. Latinos, combined with the strong immigration of Latin Americans to the United States, influenced U.S.—Latin American relations? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Acuña, Rodolfo F. US Latino Issues. Contemporary American Ethnic Issues. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003. US Latino Issues is a good introduction to some of the salient contemporary questions regarding Latinos in the United States. Its bibliography and questions for reflection can guide students to explore the issues presented in greater depth.	Arreola, Daniel D., ed. Hispanic Spaces, Latino Places: Community and Cultural Diversity	in Contemporary America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.	Though written with a scholarly tone, this recent collection provides a good panorama of distinct Hispanic and U.S. Latino communities throughout the United States.	Cardona, Luis A. A History of the Puerto Ricans in the United States of America. rev. and	enl. ed. Bethesda, MD: Carreta Press, 1995.	Castro, Tony. Chicano Power: The Emergence of Mexican America. New York: Saturday	Review Press, 1974.	A dated but good overview of Mexican Americans in U.S. politics throughout the twentieth century.	Connaughton, Stacey L. Inviting Latino Voters: Party Messages and Latino Party	Identification. New York: Routledge, 2005.	De la Garza, Rodolfo O., Frank D. Bean, Charles M. Bonjean, Ricardo Romo, and Rodolfo	Alvarez, eds. The Mexican American Experience: An Interdisciplinary Anthology.	Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.	A collection of essays.	Langley, Lester D. MexAmerica: Two Countries, One Future. New York: Crown Publishers,	1988.	An engaging look at Mexican Americans and how they have and are shaping the economy, politics, and culture in the U.S.	Márquez, Benjamin. Constructing Identities in Mexican-American Political Organizations:	Choosing Issues, Taking Sides. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.	A scholarly approach to the study of Mexican Americans in contemporary U.S. politics.	Meier, Matt S., and Feliciano Ribera. Mexican Americans, American Mexicans: From	Conquistadors to Chicanos , rev. ed. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993.	Meier and Ribera give a readable historical overview of Mexican Americans, stretching back to the encounter, and looking at pivotal moments up to the end of the twentieth century.	Oboler, Suzanne, and Deena J. González, eds. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos & Latinas	in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.	Ramos, Jorge. The Latino Wave: How Hispanics Will Elect the Next American President.	New York: Rayo, 2004.	** Rodriguez, Richard. Brown: The Last Discovery of America. New York: Viking, 2002.	Students will enjoy this provocative essay on race and public life in the United States. It is both a stimulating read and a good introduction to some central questions that students should consider when thinking about U.S. Latinos.	Stavans, Ilan. The Hispanic Condition: The Power of a People, 2nd ed. New York: Rayo,	2001.	** ________. Latino USA.: A Cartoon History. Illustrated by Lalo Alcaraz. New York: Basic	Books, 2000.	This cartoon history is a quick read and fun introduction.	Valdez, Luis, and Stan Steiner, eds. Aztlan: An Anthology of Mexican American Literature.	Compiled by the well-known U.S. Latino playwright Luis Valdez, students will find in this collection a sample of literature in translation that spans from letters of Hernán Cortés to compositions of Chicano writers in the 1970s. Other Resources: Latin American Migration to the U.S. Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[65]=new Array(66,"topics/topic48.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Questions | Bibliography	Chapter Reference: Neocolonialism; Nationalism; Revolution; Reaction	Women \'s movements in Latin America have, over all, seemed tame in their rhetoric and goals when compared to those in Europe and the United States. Perhaps that is because of the radical challenge they pose when viewed from within Latin America, with its still quite vigorous traditions of male dominance. Women \'s movements in Latin America have not generally sought to redefine women \'s social roles, but rather to advocate for women \'s welfare and empower them within fairly traditional social roles. Rather than downplaying the importance of motherhood, for example, women \'s movements in Latin America have tended to emphasize it and to put it at the center of their reformist thinking. Often, they have worked closely with the Church. In recent years, there have been some tensions between movements that explicitly identify with feminism, on the one hand, and popular women \'s movements whose goals may be more oriented to survival needs (such as combating state terrorism or staffing soup kitchens) on the other. Of course, there are issues, such as violence against women and workplace rights, around which they can unify. A paper on this topic may address the differences between women \'s movements in the U.S. and in Latin America. When thinking about movements in Latin America, students should be sure to take into account the role of the Church, as well as the efforts made by women to change their social roles since the colonial period. Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Though women \'s movements in Latin America, as well as in the U.S. and Europe, are often discussed as a historical development of the twentieth century, the efforts of women to redefine their social roles go far back into the past. What are some examples of these efforts during the colonial period? In order to respond to this question, it may be helpful to think about the spaces or arenas where women exercised authority and about how they used this authority to improve their status or condition. When the initiative to establish national systems of public education got underway toward the end of the nineteenth century, women were considered better suited than men to serve as teachers. What qualities made women natural teachers, and how did their participation in education—as students and as teachers—contribute to changing their social roles? Measuring the effectiveness of women \'s movements can be difficult, but accomplishments can be documented that shed light on just how movements have helped redefine women \'s roles in Latin America. What are some of these accomplishments in the twentieth century, and how do you see them illustrating the effectiveness of different women \'s movements? Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bergmann, Emilie, Janet Greenberg, Gwen Kirkpatrick, Francine Masiello, Francesca Miller, Marta Morello-Frosch, Kathleen Newman, and Mary Louise Pratt. Women, Culture, and Politics in Latin America: Seminar on Feminism and Culture in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.	Castro-Klarén, Sara, Sylvia Molloy, and Beatriz Sarlo, eds. Women \'s Writing in Latin	America: An Anthology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.	Hahner, June Edith. Emancipating the Female Sex: The Struggle for Women \'s Rights in Brazil,	1850—1940. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990.	** ________, ed. Women in Latin American History, Their Lives & Views, rev. ed. Los	Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1980.	Jaquette, Jane S., ed. The Women \'s Movement in Latin America: Participation and	Democracy, 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994.	** Küppers, Gaby, ed. Compañeras: Voices from the Latin American Women \'s Movement.	London: Latin American Bureau, 1994.	** Lavrin, Asunción. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay,	1890—1940. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.	Stoner, K. Lynn. From the House to the Streets: The Cuban Woman \'s Movement for Legal	Reform, 1898—1940. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991. Other Resources: Brazil Uruguay Honor Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[66]=new Array(67,"topics/assets/topic01_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A Montevideo beach in the early twentieth century. Citizens of South America \'s model country enjoyed the beaches of the wide Rio de la Plata estuary during the Southern Hemisphere summer, December through February. Note the white tents set up for the bathers comfort and privacy.",1);arrFiles[67]=new Array(68,"topics/assets/topic01_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Downtown Montevideo, 1925. The capital of South America \'s thriving model country definitely looked the part in 1925. The model was very European. The tall building in the background, a sign of neocolonial prosperity, defined Mongtevideo \'s skyline for the rest of the twentiety century.",1);arrFiles[68]=new Array(69,"topics/assets/topic01_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic01_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[69]=new Array(70,"topics/assets/topic01_img_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic01_img_02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[70]=new Array(71,"topics/assets/topic01_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic01_img_big_01.gif","","","",137);arrFiles[71]=new Array(72,"topics/assets/topic01_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic01_img_big_02.gif","","","",138);arrFiles[72]=new Array(73,"topics/assets/topic02_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Slaves in Zanzibar, 1800s. People were enslaved in widely separated parts of Africa, creating a situation of great cultural diversity in the diaspora. This nineteenth-century travel illustration depicts slaves who will be sold to European traders in Zanzibar, in southeast Africa. While the slaves here may all speak the same language, that would not be the case in their New World captivity.",1);arrFiles[73]=new Array(74,"topics/assets/topic02_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic02_img_01.gif","","","",6);arrFiles[74]=new Array(75,"topics/assets/topic02_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic02_img_big_01.gif","","","",75);arrFiles[75]=new Array(76,"topics/assets/topic03_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The Amazon River Okay, I admit it. I only did it on a dare, just so I could say I did it. And I was only in the water for two seconds. But I did, no kidding, swim in the Amazon river right after I took this picture of it. You can \'t usually see all the way across the Amazon, because it is so wide and full of islands. And it is full of boats, large and small. In fact, being in the Amazon is about being in boats a lot of the time. I dare everyone to go there. - John Charles Chasteen I AM HAVING THIS IMAGE SCANNED FROM A SLIDE AND WILL PROVIDE IT IN JULY",1);arrFiles[76]=new Array(77,"topics/assets/topic03_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Living in boats 1 and 2- An infinite maze of dark, slow-flowing rivers and streams constitutes Amazonia \'s great transportation arteries. Riverbanks have always been the main areas of settlement in the vast region. Canoes and launches are daily transportation. Many people live on the water in improvised houseboats.",1);arrFiles[77]=new Array(78,"topics/assets/topic03_img03.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Harvesting the Forest. Destruction of the rainforest remains rampant, but there are some hopeful signs. These tropical hardwoods come from Itacoatiara, a forest area under sustainable management in northern Brazil.",1);arrFiles[78]=new Array(79,"topics/assets/topic03_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[79]=new Array(80,"topics/assets/topic03_img_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[80]=new Array(81,"topics/assets/topic03_img_03.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_03.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[81]=new Array(82,"topics/assets/topic03_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_big_01.gif","","","",91);arrFiles[82]=new Array(83,"topics/assets/topic03_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_big_02.gif","","","",76);arrFiles[83]=new Array(84,"topics/assets/topic03_img_big_03.gif","2005-12-12","topic03_img_big_03.gif","","","",77);arrFiles[84]=new Array(85,"topics/assets/topic04_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Mapuches gathering nuts from Araucaria pines in a 1854 engraving.	Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, City of Philadelphia, and Comisión Nacional Chile V Centenario. Mapuche: Seeds of the Chilean Soul: An Exhibit at the Port of History Museum at Penn \'s Landing. n.p.: 1992.",1);arrFiles[85]=new Array(86,"topics/assets/topic04_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic04_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[86]=new Array(87,"topics/assets/topic04_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic04_img_big_01.gif","","","",78);arrFiles[87]=new Array(88,"topics/assets/topic05_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Banana plantation in Costa Rica around 1915. Banana companies often drew laborers from Caribbean islands, many of whom were of African descent. The racial organization of banana company operations was similar to labor regimes in the southern United States.",1);arrFiles[88]=new Array(89,"topics/assets/topic05_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic05_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[89]=new Array(90,"topics/assets/topic05_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic05_img_big_01.gif","","","",97);arrFiles[90]=new Array(91,"topics/assets/topic06_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Novelist Júlio Cortázar of Argentina. The poster reads Solidarity with Chile, expressing support for Chile \'s Popular Unity government, overthrown by the 1973 coup of Gen. Augusto Pinochet.",1);arrFiles[91]=new Array(92,"topics/assets/topic06_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic06_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[92]=new Array(93,"topics/assets/topic06_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic06_img_big_01.gif","","","",76);arrFiles[93]=new Array(94,"topics/assets/topic07_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Lula (in the blue shirt) at the World Social Forum, an international meeting that rallies opponents of Latin American neoliberalism (and unrestrained capitalist globalization) each year in Porto Alegre, Brazil. The picture was taken in 2001, before Lula became president.",1);arrFiles[94]=new Array(95,"topics/assets/topic07_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic07_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[95]=new Array(96,"topics/assets/topic07_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic07_img_big_01.gif","","","",52);arrFiles[96]=new Array(97,"topics/assets/topic08_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Construction of Locks for the Panama Canal, 1913",1);arrFiles[97]=new Array(98,"topics/assets/topic08_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic08_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[98]=new Array(99,"topics/assets/topic08_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic08_img_big_01.gif","","","",80);arrFiles[99]=new Array(100,"topics/assets/topic09_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","From Black and Indian, Wolf De negro e india, produce lobo Unknown artist, ( De negro e india, produce lobo ), ca. 1730-50. Private Collection. p. 19.",1);arrFiles[100]=new Array(101,"topics/assets/topic09_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","From Spanish and Indian, Mestizo De espańol e india nace mestiza José Guiol Buenaventura, De espańol e india nace mestiza , ca. 1770-80. Private Collection. p. 28.",1);arrFiles[101]=new Array(102,"topics/assets/topic09_img03.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Set of Caste Paintings, 1750 Unknown artist, Set of casta paintings, ca. 1750. Private Collection. p. 36.",1);arrFiles[102]=new Array(103,"topics/assets/topic09_img04.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","From Spanish and Black, Mulatto De espańol y negra, mulata Miguel Cabrera, 4. De espańol y negra, mulata, 1763. Private Collection. p. 102.",1);arrFiles[103]=new Array(104,"topics/assets/topic09_img05.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","From Spanish and Mulatto, Moorish De espańol y mulata, morisca Miguel Cabrera, 5. De espańol y mulata, morisca, 1763. Private Collection. p. 103.",1);arrFiles[104]=new Array(105,"topics/assets/topic09_img06.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","From Mestizo and Indian, Coyote De mestizo y de india, coyote Miguel Cabrera, 15. De mestizo y de india, coyote, 1763. Collection Elisabeth Waldo-Dentzel, Multi Cultural Music and Art Foundation of Northridge, California. p. 105.",1);arrFiles[105]=new Array(106,"topics/assets/topic09_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_01.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[106]=new Array(107,"topics/assets/topic09_img_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[107]=new Array(108,"topics/assets/topic09_img_03.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_03.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[108]=new Array(109,"topics/assets/topic09_img_04.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_04.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[109]=new Array(110,"topics/assets/topic09_img_05.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_05.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[110]=new Array(111,"topics/assets/topic09_img_06.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_06.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[111]=new Array(112,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_01.gif","","","",90);arrFiles[112]=new Array(113,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_02.gif","","","",79);arrFiles[113]=new Array(114,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_03.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_03.gif","","","",168);arrFiles[114]=new Array(115,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_04.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_04.gif","","","",123);arrFiles[115]=new Array(116,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_05.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_05.gif","","","",154);arrFiles[116]=new Array(117,"topics/assets/topic09_img_big_06.gif","2005-12-12","topic09_img_big_06.gif","","","",211);arrFiles[117]=new Array(118,"topics/assets/topic10_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Picking ripe coffee beans, which will then be stripped of their red skin and pulp and dried for roasting. (Costa Rica).",1);arrFiles[118]=new Array(119,"topics/assets/topic10_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic10_img_01.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[119]=new Array(120,"topics/assets/topic10_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic10_img_big_01.gif","","","",60);arrFiles[120]=new Array(121,"topics/assets/topic11_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Cuban revolutionaries including Fidel Castro (fourth from the left) and Che Guevara (second from left) in 1957, a year and a half before their triumphant entry into Havana.",1);arrFiles[121]=new Array(122,"topics/assets/topic11_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic11_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[122]=new Array(123,"topics/assets/topic11_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic11_img_big_01.gif","","","",149);arrFiles[123]=new Array(124,"topics/assets/topic12_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Barrancabermeja. This steamy port of 250,000 inhabitants on Colombia \'s Magadalena River is one of the many places in the country that the government cannot fully control. The chief competition here comes from the ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacional) guerrilla group. Special police like the one pictured here are known humorously in Colombia as Robocops.",1);arrFiles[124]=new Array(125,"topics/assets/topic12_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic12_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[125]=new Array(126,"topics/assets/topic12_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic12_img_big_01.gif","","","",128);arrFiles[126]=new Array(127,"topics/assets/topic13_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","European diseases. to which indigenous Americans had no natural defenses decimated their populations in the 1500s. Pictured here is a Mexican smallpox epidemic, but other European diseases not deadly to the Spanish and Portuguese invaders, such as measles, also laid waste to indigenous populations.",1);arrFiles[127]=new Array(128,"topics/assets/topic13_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic13_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[128]=new Array(129,"topics/assets/topic13_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic13_img_big_01.gif","","","",127);arrFiles[129]=new Array(130,"topics/assets/topic14_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A late-nineteenth-century photographic study of Uruguayan criminals. Practitioners of phrenology believed that the study of heads and faces would allow them to identify criminal types and, eventually, predict criminal behavior. Levine, Robert M. Images of History: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Latin American Photographs as Documents . Durham: Duke University Press, 1989. Uruguayan criminals: p 30; original source: H.L. Hoffenberg",1);arrFiles[130]=new Array(131,"topics/assets/topic14_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic14_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[131]=new Array(132,"topics/assets/topic14_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic14_img_big_01.gif","","","",104);arrFiles[132]=new Array(133,"topics/assets/topic15_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A conventillo. European immigrants to Buenos Aires and Montevideo commonly lived in large old houses partitioned into scores of tiny rooms surrounding a courtyard. This Buenos Aires conventillo of 1902 had 150 rooms and 500 inhabitants.",1);arrFiles[133]=new Array(134,"topics/assets/topic15_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic15_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[134]=new Array(135,"topics/assets/topic15_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic15_img_big_01.gif","","","",101);arrFiles[135]=new Array(136,"topics/assets/topic16_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Juan and Evita Perón greet the adoring crowd during a procession through the streets of Buenos Aires following Perón \'s second presidential oath of office in1952.",1);arrFiles[136]=new Array(137,"topics/assets/topic16_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic16_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[137]=new Array(138,"topics/assets/topic16_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic16_img_big_01.gif","","","",133);arrFiles[138]=new Array(139,"topics/assets/topic17_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Argentine gauchos socializing, probably in the early twentieth century. Note that the man seated in profile is pouring hot water from a kettle to drink mate, the Paraguayan tea still consumed daily by many in the Río de la Plata.",1);arrFiles[139]=new Array(140,"topics/assets/topic17_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic17_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[140]=new Array(141,"topics/assets/topic17_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic17_img_big_01.gif","","","",109);arrFiles[141]=new Array(142,"topics/assets/topic18_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The Haitian Revolution of the 1790s began as a slave revolt and resulted in the first independent Caribbean nation.",1);arrFiles[142]=new Array(143,"topics/assets/topic18_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","François Domingue Toussaint L \'Overture, the liberator of Haiti, was born a slave.",1);arrFiles[143]=new Array(144,"topics/assets/topic18_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic18_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[144]=new Array(145,"topics/assets/topic18_img_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic18_img_02.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[145]=new Array(146,"topics/assets/topic18_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic18_img_big_01.gif","","","",122);arrFiles[146]=new Array(147,"topics/assets/topic18_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic18_img_big_02.gif","","","",121);arrFiles[147]=new Array(148,"topics/assets/topic19_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Honor is all about hierarchy (rank order), a fundamental principle of social organization in Latin American history. What kinds of hierarchy can you see in this early-1800s engraving of a Brazilian government official leaving home with this family?",1);arrFiles[148]=new Array(149,"topics/assets/topic19_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic19_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[149]=new Array(150,"topics/assets/topic19_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic19_img_big_01.gif","","","",119);arrFiles[150]=new Array(151,"topics/assets/topic20_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Indigenous procession in highlands Ecuador. Photograph by Hector Cifuentes, 1979. Taken from a website dedicated to the artist and his daughter, Maria Angelica: http://www.zonezero.com/exposiciones/fotografos/hcifuentes/hugo04.html These appear to be her email addresses: macifuentes@gmx.net maria-angela@cifuentes.de",1);arrFiles[151]=new Array(152,"topics/assets/topic20_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic20_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[152]=new Array(153,"topics/assets/topic20_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic20_img_big_01.gif","","","",95);arrFiles[153]=new Array(154,"topics/assets/topic21_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Workers of the informal economy. These Mexico City tradesmen are hoping to be hired for the day. Signs and toolboxes advertise their trades: plumber, electrician, handyman.",1);arrFiles[154]=new Array(155,"topics/assets/topic21_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic21_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[155]=new Array(156,"topics/assets/topic21_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic21_img_big_01.gif","","","",92);arrFiles[156]=new Array(157,"topics/assets/topic22_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Women sorting tungsten ore in a Bolivian mine around 1955. Labor issues surrounding indigenous miners in the Andes go back half a millennium.",1);arrFiles[157]=new Array(158,"topics/assets/topic22_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic22_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[158]=new Array(159,"topics/assets/topic22_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic22_img_big_01.gif","","","",253);arrFiles[159]=new Array(160,"topics/assets/topic23_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Seeking a better life for their children, a Mexican family crosses the Rio Grande near El Paso, Texas. The low-cost labor of such immigrants (as everything from farm workers to cooks) provides a substantial boost to middle-class lifestyles in the contemporary United States.",1);arrFiles[160]=new Array(161,"topics/assets/topic23_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic23_img_01.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[161]=new Array(162,"topics/assets/topic23_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic23_img_big_01.gif","","","",55);arrFiles[162]=new Array(163,"topics/assets/topic24_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Lima retained its colonial appearance into the mid-1800s, pictured here. Note the heavy wooden blinds that encased second-floor balconies, a distinctive element of traditional Limeńo architecture. Fuentes, Manuel A. Lima: Sketches of the Capital of Peru. Historical, Statestical, Administrative, Commercial and Moral. Paris: Firmin Didot Brothers, Sons & Co., 1866. Calle de los judios: Between 4 and 5",1);arrFiles[163]=new Array(164,"topics/assets/topic24_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic24_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[164]=new Array(165,"topics/assets/topic24_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic24_img_big_01.gif","","","",52);arrFiles[165]=new Array(166,"topics/assets/topic25_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Sandino (center) and his staff in 1929.",1);arrFiles[166]=new Array(167,"topics/assets/topic25_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic25_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[167]=new Array(168,"topics/assets/topic25_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic25_img_big_01.gif","","","",65);arrFiles[168]=new Array(169,"topics/assets/topic27_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Antonio Conselheiro. An image of the millenarian prophet of Canudos in a 1897 newspaper.",1);arrFiles[169]=new Array(170,"topics/assets/topic27_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic27_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[170]=new Array(171,"topics/assets/topic27_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic27_img_big_01.gif","","","",206);arrFiles[171]=new Array(172,"topics/assets/topic28_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Maquila Women assembling electronics at a maquiladora in Juarez, Mexico. NAFTA produced the rapid expansion in Mexico of factories called maquiladoras that assemble parts produced elsewhere. Maquiladoras often change their location in search of the lowest possible labor costs.",1);arrFiles[172]=new Array(173,"topics/assets/topic28_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic28_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[173]=new Array(174,"topics/assets/topic28_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic28_img_big_01.gif","","","",72);arrFiles[174]=new Array(175,"topics/assets/topic29_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Havana school children visit a monument to the great patriot general Antono Maceo. Maceo, a man of African descent, represents not only Cuban independence but also the predominant role that black Cubans played in winning it.",1);arrFiles[175]=new Array(176,"topics/assets/topic29_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic29_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[176]=new Array(177,"topics/assets/topic29_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic29_img_big_01.gif","","","",42);arrFiles[177]=new Array(178,"topics/assets/topic30_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A Chief Priestess of Iemanjá, the mother of all other Candomblé deities (Bahia, Brazil) Her shrine \'s cloth embellishments evoke the glamour of heaven. Note Catholic images in the background. Galembo, Phyllis. Divine Inspiration: From Benin to Bahia. With a Foreword by David Byrne and essays by Robert Farris Thompson, Joseph Nevadomsky, Norma Rosen, and Zeca Ligičro. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993. Chief Priestess: p. 169.",1);arrFiles[178]=new Array(179,"topics/assets/topic30_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic30_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[179]=new Array(180,"topics/assets/topic30_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic30_img_big_01.gif","","","",133);arrFiles[180]=new Array(181,"topics/assets/topic31_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Pedro II in 1872. Pedro normally dressed, according to one observer, like an English banker, but he wore full imperial regalia when addressing the National Assembly",1);arrFiles[181]=new Array(182,"topics/assets/topic31_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic31_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[182]=new Array(183,"topics/assets/topic31_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic31_img_big_01.gif","","","",170);arrFiles[183]=new Array(184,"topics/assets/topic32_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Victor Jara in concert. Chilean protest musicians embraced song forms and instruments of Andean folk tradition, such as the drum pictured here.",1);arrFiles[184]=new Array(185,"topics/assets/topic32_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic32_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[185]=new Array(186,"topics/assets/topic32_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic32_img_big_01.gif","","","",116);arrFiles[186]=new Array(187,"topics/assets/topic33_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A group of Argentine soldiers rests after taking the town of Luque, just outside the Paraguayan capital, Asunción, in 1869. Note the period resemblance with uniforms in the US Civil War.",1);arrFiles[187]=new Array(188,"topics/assets/topic33_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic33_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[188]=new Array(189,"topics/assets/topic33_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic33_img_big_01.gif","","","",99);arrFiles[189]=new Array(190,"topics/assets/topic34_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The town of Potosí. The fabled mountain of silver stands in the background.",1);arrFiles[190]=new Array(191,"topics/assets/topic34_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The mountain of silver. It is the eighth wonder of the world and the greatest of all, a mountain entirely of silver . . . . Every day, eight thousand Indians work inside this mountain by the light of candles, and four thousand more carry out the ore. Friar Diego de Ocańa, a witness of the 1500s.",1);arrFiles[191]=new Array(192,"topics/assets/topic34_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic34_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[192]=new Array(193,"topics/assets/topic34_img_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic34_img_02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[193]=new Array(194,"topics/assets/topic34_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic34_img_big_01.gif","","","",98);arrFiles[194]=new Array(195,"topics/assets/topic34_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","topic34_img_big_02.gif","","","",234);arrFiles[195]=new Array(196,"topics/assets/topic35_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Brazilians mingle around a monument to Zumbi, king of Palmares, a commemoration of the three-hundredth anniversary of his death. The sculpture illustrates the importance of Zumbi in Brazilian historical memory. In fact, Brazil \'s National Black Consciousness Day, celebrated on November 20, was first called Zumbi day.",1);arrFiles[196]=new Array(197,"topics/assets/topic35_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic35_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[197]=new Array(198,"topics/assets/topic35_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic35_img_big_01.gif","","","",88);arrFiles[198]=new Array(199,"topics/assets/topic36_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Rio de Janeiro \'s main slave market in the 1830s. The importation of slaves to Brazil actually accelerated in this period, when slavery was already in decline throughout most of Latin America.",1);arrFiles[199]=new Array(200,"topics/assets/topic36_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic36_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[200]=new Array(201,"topics/assets/topic36_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic36_img_big_01.gif","","","",92);arrFiles[201]=new Array(202,"topics/assets/topic37_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Harvesting sugarcane in Cuba, a mid-1800s travel illustration. The sugar harvest was grueling work that employed every available hour of daylight and every available worker. The cane must be rushed to the mill before its sweet sap begins to ferment.",1);arrFiles[202]=new Array(203,"topics/assets/topic37_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic37_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[203]=new Array(204,"topics/assets/topic37_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic37_img_big_01.gif","","","",129);arrFiles[204]=new Array(205,"topics/assets/topic38_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Aztec emmisaries (right) making a treaty with Hernán Cortés, seated. Cortés \'s interpreter, Malinche, stands by his side.",1);arrFiles[205]=new Array(206,"topics/assets/topic38_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic38_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[206]=new Array(207,"topics/assets/topic38_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic38_img_big_01.gif","","","",140);arrFiles[207]=new Array(208,"topics/assets/topic39_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Cuzco, the Inca capital, was erected on foundations of interlocking stone to resist earthquakes.",1);arrFiles[208]=new Array(209,"topics/assets/topic39_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic39_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[209]=new Array(210,"topics/assets/topic39_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic39_img_big_01.gif","","","",95);arrFiles[210]=new Array(211,"topics/assets/topic40_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Various images of Bolívar on the Venezuelan currency that bears his name.",1);arrFiles[211]=new Array(212,"topics/assets/topic40_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic40_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[212]=new Array(213,"topics/assets/topic40_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic40_img_big_01.gif","","","",101);arrFiles[213]=new Array(214,"topics/assets/topic41_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Indigenous Ecuadorians celebrate the completion of a water project with missionaries from the United States.",1);arrFiles[214]=new Array(215,"topics/assets/topic41_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic41_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[215]=new Array(216,"topics/assets/topic41_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic41_img_big_01.gif","","","",80);arrFiles[216]=new Array(217,"topics/assets/topic42_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The 1999 film Buena Vista Social Club reintroduced US audiences to the classic sounds of twentieth-century Cuban music.",1);arrFiles[217]=new Array(218,"topics/assets/topic42_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic42_img_01.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[218]=new Array(219,"topics/assets/topic42_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic42_img_big_01.gif","","","",42);arrFiles[219]=new Array(220,"topics/assets/topic43_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The famous Pancho Villa, general of Mexico \'s Revolutionary Army of the North, appears at the center of a group of his soldiers sometime between 1910 and 1920.",1);arrFiles[220]=new Array(221,"topics/assets/topic43_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic43_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[221]=new Array(222,"topics/assets/topic43_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic43_img_big_01.gif","","","",127);arrFiles[222]=new Array(223,"topics/assets/topic44_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Tupac Amaro \'s execution by being torn into four pieces, 1781.",1);arrFiles[223]=new Array(224,"topics/assets/topic44_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic44_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[224]=new Array(225,"topics/assets/topic44_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic44_img_big_01.gif","","","",43);arrFiles[225]=new Array(226,"topics/assets/topic45_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Rural guerrillas of the FMLN conduct a daily drill in the 1980s. They were fighting a national army trained and supplied by the United States. Kufeld, Adam (photographs). El Salvador. With an introduction by Arnoldo Ramos and poetry by Manlio Argueta. New York: Norton, 1990. Morning Drill: p. 89",1);arrFiles[226]=new Array(227,"topics/assets/topic45_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic45_img_01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[227]=new Array(228,"topics/assets/topic45_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic45_img_big_01.gif","","","",113);arrFiles[228]=new Array(229,"topics/assets/topic46_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The Virgin of Guadalupe. A pilgrim carries an image of the Virgin inside her crowded Basilica at Tepeyac, now part of Mexico City. Around ten million people visit the Basilica every year.",1);arrFiles[229]=new Array(230,"topics/assets/topic46_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic46_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[230]=new Array(231,"topics/assets/topic46_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic46_img_big_01.gif","","","",70);arrFiles[231]=new Array(232,"topics/assets/topic47_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Latinos (or Hispanics, as they are also called) now constitute the largest minority group in the United States, outnumbering African Americans.",1);arrFiles[232]=new Array(233,"topics/assets/topic47_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic47_img_01.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[233]=new Array(234,"topics/assets/topic47_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic47_img_big_01.gif","","","",72);arrFiles[234]=new Array(235,"topics/assets/topic48_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Peruvian women \'s rally in 1992. These women are demonstrating in support of a Glass of Milk program, that provides nourishment to poor children to allay the sufferings of poor families in the face of neoliberal austerity programs.",1);arrFiles[235]=new Array(236,"topics/assets/topic48_img_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic48_img_01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[236]=new Array(237,"topics/assets/topic48_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","topic48_img_big_01.gif","","","",65);arrFiles[237]=new Array(238,"themes/arts.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search	Nowhere does the give-and-take of transculturation appear so clearly as in Latin America \'s expressive culture. While transculturation has occurred over four centuries since the Encounter, Latin America \'s fine arts discovered it rather late. During the colonial period and throughout the 1800s, the region \'s artists and writers remained largely imitative of Europe rather than reflective of Latin American realities. The famous colonial caste paintings, depicting the process of race mixing, are an exception in that regard. The dominant subjects by far, for colonial Latin American artists, were those of religious devotion, like saints \' images. After independence, Paris became an artistic and literary beacon for generations among the Latin American elite. Not until the mid-1900s did indigenous and African influences gain pride of place under the aegis of cultural nationalism. Only then did Latin America become known in the world for its literary, artistic, and especially musical, creativity in a number of distinctive styles. Indigenista literature from Mexico, Guatemala, and the Andes constitutes an important example, and so does the hemispheric literary Boom of the 1960s and 1970s. Two others are international influences of (afro) Cuban music and the revolutionary Nueva Canción, with its stirring themes of protest.	Research topics for students interested in arts and literature: Other Resources: Caste Paintings Indigenista Novels The Music that Conquered the World Nueva Canción Boom Novels Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[238]=new Array(239,"themes/gender.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search --	Traditional gender roles are fading in Latin American life, but they remain powerful. The most basic outlines of their history can be briefly recounted. Pre-Encounter indigenous traditions varied widely, of course, but it may be said that many of them subordinated women to men less than did the arriving Iberians of the 1500s. The Iberian patterns of gender were strongly patriarchal and placed an extremely high value on female (less on male) chastity. Over all, gender roles changed slowly in the 1800s, then began a more rapid transformation with steady urbanization in the 1900s. The rate of change has also been variable. Highly educated professionals in the region \'s cosmopolitan cities, for example, are sometimes just as far from traditional gender roles as are their European or U.S. counterparts. On the other hand, the attitude of male dominance, called machismo, remains potent, especially in the countryside and among the less educated. Women \'s movements in twentieth-century Latin America were inspired by U.S. and European examples but did not imitate them exactly.	Research topics for students interested in gender: Other Resources: Honor Women \'s Movements Caste paintings Labor history Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",11);arrFiles[239]=new Array(240,"themes/index.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search KEY THEMES INDEX	Choose Key Themes from the below listed Themes. Key Themes - Arts and Literature Key Themes - Gender Key Themes - Race Key Themes - Religion Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",11);arrFiles[240]=new Array(241,"themes/race.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search --	Latin America \'s human variety is endless. The region has been one of the world \'s great meeting places of gene pools since Africans and Europeans joined indigenous Americans in the 1500s. Indeed, the modern idea of race, by which I mean the one familiar in the United States in the twentieth century, arose partly because of the Spanish and Portuguese experience in the Americas. Imperial governments sought to categorize and monitor the populations they controlled, populations with distinct rights and obligations in the imperial scheme of things, populations that—despite imperial wishes—always showed a proclivity for mestizaje (mixture), impeding imperial administration. Mestizaje, one could say, has been the lead story of race in Latin America since colonial times. It has been a story variously interpreted. For most colonial administrators, mestizaje was a social ill because it confounded the system. Nativist independence movements reacted against the colonial system, making mestizaje patriotic, so to speak, but that spirit soon faded after independence was attained. Through most of the 1800s, race mixture was viewed among educated Latin Americans through the lens of European scientific racism, which means it was viewed with horror and dread, because most racist doctrines of white supremacy interpreted mestizaje as degeneration. In the twentieth century, however, nationalist movements throughout the region made mestizaje central to state ideologies. The result was a resounding triumph over official doctrines of white supremacy, but problems remain. The shadow of old caste hierarchies remains undeniably present in people \'s thinking and behavior. As a state ideology, therefore, mestizaje falsely suggests that problems of racial discrimination have been solved. Furthermore, alternative racial identities, such as that expressed by indigenous people who wish to remain themselves, appear unpatriotic when viewed through the official lens of mestizaje.	Research topics for students interested in race: Other Resources: Caste Paintings National Identities in the Caribbean Indigenista Novels The Virgin of Guadalupe Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[241]=new Array(242,"themes/religion.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search	Latin America is a religious dynamo, a place that, while in some ways highly traditional, also continues to generate religious innovation. The centrality of religion to political power has long been notable in Latin America. The temples and pyramids of the Aztecs and Mayas were among their most imposing structures. The Incas, as well, had a theocratic empire. Likewise, for both Spanish and Portuguese colonizers, the Catholic Church played a central role in social organization. That did not change, in most places, with independence. Anti-clerical Liberals battled with pro-church Conservatives into the twentieth century. The late twentieth century saw a new, revolutionary brand of Catholic faith distinctive to Latin America: Liberation Theology. The same period saw a surge in non-Catholic religious innovation. In numerical terms, the chief one was the advance of Protestantism, initially spread by missionaries from the United States, but eventually self-sustaining. On the other hand, there was also a flowering of transplanted (and obviously modified) African religious practices, especially in Cuba and Brazil.	MAP: Hemisphere, indicating important syncretic cults in Cuba and the Caribbean, and places where Protestantism has made most inroads: Chile, Brazil, Guatemala	Research topics for students interested in religion: Other Resources: Neo-African Religions Millenarianism African Background The Missionary Urge The Virgin of Guadalupe Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[242]=new Array(243,"themes/assets/arts_img01.gif","2005-12-12","arts_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[243]=new Array(244,"themes/assets/arts_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Inclusión, 2002 A photograph by the Argentine sculptor Mónica Van Asperen. Latin American arts and literature today are often avant guard.	Found on the website of LatinArt.com http://www.latinart.com/faview.cfm?id=913",1);arrFiles[244]=new Array(245,"themes/assets/arts_img02.gif","2005-12-12","arts_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[245]=new Array(246,"themes/assets/arts_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. 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Argentina is the city of Buenos Aires, the port capital, a sprawling immigrant-filled Chicago on the pampa—only much larger. And Argentina is the pampa, a limitless flat horizon of fertile, well-watered agricultural land (one of the world \'s great bread baskets) and beyond, the wide arid plains sweeping to the Andes. During much of the 1800s, Buenos Aires was politically a land apart from the rest of Argentina, and in social and cultural terms, the contrast remains striking. Buenos Aires looks and feels like Europe to visitors from the United States, while the Argentine interior is more unmistakably Latin American. The Argentine accent most U.S. students have heard is really the porteño accent of Buenos Aires, shared (approximately) with Uruguayans but not with Argentines in the interior. The accents of Tucumán or Jujuy, for example—like the faces of the people who live in those localities—would not seem out of place elsewhere in Latin America.	Another duality important to Argentine history contrasts the entire coastal region, or Litoral, to the Andean region, or Northwest. In the colonial period, Northwestern Argentina was the most colonized area of the country, an economic support zone for the great mines at Potosí, in what is now Bolivia. Therefore, the Argentine Northwest has an Andean flavor, both physically and culturally. Córdoba, home of the country \'s colonial university, as well as wine-rich Mendoza and San Juan, are southern outposts of this region, as is sugarcane-growing Tucumán. The Litoral, on the other hand, was home to cattle herds and gaucho herdsmen, then to the wheat-farming Italian immigrants and their tango-dancing urban descendents, who compose the more familiar international profile of Argentina. The Litoral region eclipsed the Northwest economically at independence and has remained ever since the more developed and prosperous part of the country. Topics: Boom Novels European Immigration From Perón to Dirty War Gauchos and Caudillos Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: The duality that has placed cosmopolitan Buenos Aires in contrast to the rural interior since the 1800s was very much the reverse during the colonial period. Up to the late 1700s, Buenos Aires was a backwater city with a small population. What led to the growth of the city—in terms of both population and economic activity—around 1800, and how did these factors allow Buenos Aires to become a leader of the wars of independence? What are some of the political, social, and cultural manifestations of progress in Argentina of the late nineteenth century? (To address this question, think about institutions, policies, and literary or other artistic creations that appear around the turn of the century.) Immigration plays a big role in Argentine history but so does a sometimes-nasty reaction to immigration that surfaced in the early 1900s and fed the rise of a new nationalism in Argentina. Nationalism has positive and negative aspects. Can you identify both in Argentine history? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bethell, Leslie, ed. Argentina Since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1993.	This edited volume draws from the extensive Cambridge History of Latin America to present a concise, accessible look at Argentina since the early nineteenth century. While it contains essays that are scholarly treatments of problems in Argentine history—primarily related to politics and economics—they are useful for the undergraduate reader seeking to pursue these problems in greater depth. Bibliographical essays for each chapter are included.	Brown, Jonathan C. A Brief History of Argentina. New York: Facts On File, 2003. [not	available]	Lewis, Colin M. Argentina: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld, 2002.	This clearly written survey deals primarily with Argentina in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, touching only briefly on the colonial period in the introduction. Students will find useful Lewis \'s interpretation of events leading up to the recent economic crisis in Argentina, as well as that of the politics of violence that overshadowed Argentina in the last quarter of the twentieth century. A short bibliographical essay and index are included after the text.	Lewis, Daniel K. The History of Argentina. Greenwood Histories of Modern Nations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001. [not available, but this series tends to have	good general histories]	Luna, Felix. A Brief History of Argentina. Translated by Judith Ravin. Buenos Aires: Planeta,	1995.	Luna is one of the most prolific and widely read historians of Argentina. This historical overview takes the nonspecialist reader from colonial Argentina to the 1950s. The narrative style is casual; and rather than privileging political history, emphasis is placed on the story of the formation of Argentina as a nation through the blend of politics, economics, and sociocultural forces.	** Rock, David. Argentina, 1516 1982: From Spanish Colonization to the Falklands War.	London: I.B. Tauris & Co., 1986.	A clearly written, effectively organized general history of Argentina with a strong political emphasis and extensive bibliography. Undergraduates may want to consult this book especially for further reading on a particular period of interest. Includes a glossary of Spanish terms, numerous statistical tables, and a series of maps and photographs.	** Scobie, James R. Argentina: A City and a Nation, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University	Press, 1971.	Though an older work, Scobie \'s survey of Argentine history will hold students \' attention better than many others. The lead story is political, but Scobie does not neglect to explore social and cultural developments. Includes clear, informative maps and tables, a detailed political chronology, and a bibliographical essay. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Argentina Croquis of Litoral vs. Interior Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",19);arrFiles[377]=new Array(378,"country/bolivia.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | -- Questions | Bibliography From Silver to Tin	There is no way around it. Bolivia had worse luck than most countries in Latin America. Dense populations of fully sedentary indigenous farmers made it one of the great heartlands of America. Bolivia \'s main indigenous language, Aymara, rivals Quecha as an important Andean tongue. A place of natural and human wealth, the great mine at Potosí was the richest place in all of Spain \'s global empire of the 1600s. During the colonial period, it was called Upper Peru, at first under the control of Lima, later under the control of Buenos Aires. In 1824, it was the last Spanish-controlled territory liberated by the army of Simon Bolivar, from whom Bolivia takes its modern name. Bolivia has fought in several international wars, and lost all of them, most notably to Chile. In the 1880s, Chile took the narrow strip of Pacific coast that linked Bolivia to the sea, leaving it landlocked. Today most of Bolivia \'s imports and exports must cross its former territory with Chilean permission. Finally, whereas it was once synonymous with silver, the country \'s primary mining industry of the twentieth century exported a much less valuable metal, tin.	If Bolivia had not lost its seacoast to Chile, its geography would follow the layout exemplified by Peru and Ecuador: coastal plain on the Pacific side, Andean highlands in the middle, Amazonian lowlands to the east. The Andean highlands of Bolivia constitute an especially wide and flat plateau, or altiplano in Spanish. These highlands were the main focus of Spanish colonization in what is today Bolivia. Sloping down to the east from the altiplano is a warmer region of Andean ridges and valleys, where the pleasant city of Cochabamba is located. Bolivia \'s eastern plains, on the edge of the Amazon basin, center economically on the thriving city of Santa Cruz. Topics: Amazonia The Inca Empire Indigenista Novels Peru Ecuador Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How does Bolivia \'s history demonstrate that rich colonies do not easily become rich nations? How do recent political developments in Bolivia reflect lingering memories of the country \'s historical experience? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Alexander, Robert J. Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics. With a foreword	by Robert Wesson. New York: Praeger; Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1982.	In this short, older survey, Alexander focuses on political and economic history since independence (1825). An index is included, but references to bibliography are minimal. It is most useful for details of twentieth-century Bolivian politics.	Fifer, J. Valerie. Bolivia: Land, Location, and Politics Since 1825. Cambridge Latin	American Studies 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.	A dated scholarly treatment of Bolivian politics and economy from independence (1825) to the mid twentieth century. Chapters correspond to three main regional areas and historical developments that distinguish these. Many maps, a readable introduction, and a complete index make this book a useful reference.	Klein, Herbert S. A Concise History of Bolivia. New York: Cambridge University Press,	2003.	A very accessible survey of Bolivian history from Pre-Columbian civilization to the late twentieth century, attending to political and economic evolution as well as social and cultural characteristics and developments. Particular emphasis is given to the period since independence. Includes statistical tables and a bibliographical essay.	Morales, Waltraud Q. A Brief History of Bolivia. New York: Facts on File, 2003.	A readable overview of Bolivian history from late-Pre-Columbian society to the first years of the present century. Selections from primary and secondary sources are interspersed throughout the text to allow readers to focus their historical perspective on certain points. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, and a list of suggested readings.	Morales, Waltraud Q. Bolivia: Land of Struggle. Boulder: Westview Press, 1992.	Devotes particular attention to following the thread of popular struggle through twentieth-century politics, economics, and social movements. Tables, photographs, and a bibliography and an index accompany the narrative. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Bolivia Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[378]=new Array(379,"country/brazil.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography Half of South America	Brazil is not just another country in Latin America. Brazil is a unified Portuguese America that did not split in the wake of independence as Spanish America did. In both land area and population, Brazil is far and away the largest Latin American country, currently boasting the eighth-largest economy in the world. So Brazil contrasts in size, culture, and history to most Spanish American countries. Brazil began with a sugar plantation economy, which implied massive forced immigration from Africa to replace a vanishing indigenous workforce. Only Cuba is really comparable in Spanish America. Of course, the Portuguese language itself also sets Brazil apart from Spanish America. For linguistic reasons, Brazil has shared relatively little, culturally and intellectually, with Spanish American countries—little, at least, when compared with what Spanish Americans have shared with each other. Colonial Brazil was separated from colonial Spanish America by the vastness of the continent \'s interior spaces. Trade was limited. Their main meeting place was Brazil \'s southern flank, the Rio de la Plata basin, scene of repeated wars. Today, this region is the most integrated with Brazil economically (under the Mercosur free trade agreement), while overall, Brazil \'s long border with Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay remains sparsely populated. Physically separate, Brazilian and Spanish American societies have quite separate identities as well, in every thing from their political and intellectual traditions to their popular culture. For example, Brazilians and Spanish Americans, as a general rule, do not listen much to each others \' music or read each other \'s authors, being far more attuned culturally to Europe or the United States.	Within Latin America, then, Brazil is something of a world apart. There is certainly a lot there to fascinate students. The biggest draw, no doubt, is the colonial capital and Afro-Brazilian cultural Mecca, Salvador (Bahia). Bahia lies on the sugar coast, the original focus of Portuguese colonization, a region that Brazilians now call simply the Northeast. But the Northeast means two different things. It means the coast, where the sugar plantations left their bitter legacy of wealth mixed with poverty, as well as the rich cultural legacy on display in Salvador. But the Northeast is also the arid sertão that occupies a wide swath of the Brazilian interior, with its ranching economy and its periodic droughts so devastating as to send even the toughest backlanders fleeing to the coast. What the Northeast was in colonial Brazil the Southeast is today—the main hub of Brazilian economic life, location of its most developed cities and infrastructure, a magnet for immigrants for over a century. The far South, where immigration has been even more important, shares high indices of development. Except for the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil \'s advanced military outpost since colonial days, the far South has been a late-blooming region in Brazilian national life. Even later-blooming have been the regions far from the coast, both the Amazonian North and the more arid West, where few Brazilians live to this day. Topics: African Background Amazonia Brazil \'s Lula Lula \'s Brazil Coffee European Immigration Millenarianism The Missionary Urge Neo-African Religions Quilombos and Palenques Slavery and Abolition Labor History Themes: Religion (Key Theme) Race (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Can you explain how patterns of indigenous life in Brazil contrasted with those of Mexico or Peru? Why did the contrast have such far-reaching results? How does Brazil \'s monarchical experience in the nineteenth century contrast with the Spanish American experience? Why was Getúlio Vargas Brazil \'s most influential leader ever? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Burns, E. Bradford. A History of Brazil, 3rd ed. New York: Columbia University Press,	1993.	Written with the undergraduate reader in mind, with attention to cultural problems as well as political and economic ones. A useful pictorial study offers many photographs of Brazil \'s past and present, a glossary with Portuguese terms, and a complete index are provided. Burns also includes a bibliographic essay with a twist: he discusses Brazilian novels (translated into English) as a way to explore Brazil \'s history.	Fausto, Boris. A Concise History of Brazil. Translated by Arthur Brakel. New York:	Cambridge University Press, 1999.	Fausto \'s history of Brazil is part of a new series that aims to make historical scholarship accessible to readers who are not specialists on the country at hand. A useful bibliographical narrative is included, as are a handful of plates and maps.	** Levine, Robert M. The History of Brazil. Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.	Few maps and no illustrations, but the historical timeline, key people section, bibliographical essay, and a glossary of Portuguese terms are helpful tools.	Meade, Teresa A. A Brief History of Brazil. New York: Facts On File, 2003.	An accessible, up-to-date, and balanced general history of Brazil. Useful appendices include a bibliography, basic facts, a timeline, and a suggested-readings list arranged according to major moments in Brazilian history. Illustrations and excerpts from primary and secondary sources complement the text.	Schneider, Ronald M. Order and Progress: A Political History of Brazil. Boulder:	Westview Press, 1991.	For the student who seeks a detailed, scholarly political narrative. Notes provide the only bibliographical information in the book.	** Skidmore, Thomas E. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change. Latin American Histories. New	York: Oxford University Press, 1999.	A well-written survey of Brazilian history from the colonial era up to the end of the twentieth century. Though the primary focus falls on politics and economics, Skidmore maps out important social and cultural characteristics and developments of Brazil. Among these are questions of race and the institution of slavery, changing social hierarchies, and the evolution of ideologies in the twentieth century. Numerous statistical tables sum up points in the text, a bibliographical essay offers suggestions for further reading, and clear maps give the reader a geographical picture of Brazil.	Smith, Joseph, and Francisco Vinhosa. History of Brazil, 1500 2000: Politics, Economy,	Society, Diplomacy. London: Longman, 2002.	This history aims to serve as a textbook on Brazil. Its chapters are rigorously organized, with each one breaking down into sections on politics, economy, society, and diplomacy, providing ready reference but impeding the book \'s narrative flow. A timeline, glossary of Portuguese terms, list of presidents, notes on sources cited, and a bibliographical essay with selected readings are included. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of brazil Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",21);arrFiles[379]=new Array(380,"country/chile.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography Between the Andes and the Sea	Chile \'s remarkable profile—its narrowness, coupled with an interminable coastline that, if it were transferred to the Northern Hemisphere, would stretch from Panama to Alaska—is distinctive in the world. This outrageous length links climatic extremes, from the bone-dry desert north to the rainy, glacier-gouged south, but the brunt of Chile \'s population has always clustered in the middle, around Santiago and the central valley, with its Mediterranean climate so suitable for the country \'s famous wines. The Andes that divide Chile from Argentina have not left much imprint on Chilean national life. The sea has been much more important. Following independence in 1810, Chile \'s colonial isolation ended abruptly with the steady arrival of ships from several trading nations of the North Atlantic. Chile \'s relative prosperity began early in its national history and allowed, among other things, the consolidation of political stability there long before other Spanish American republics were able to achieve it. The compactness of its main area of settlement spared Chile the regional conflict that afflicted so many other Latin American countries in the 1800s. Only the city of Concepción, at the southern end of the central valley, occasionally constituted a political rival to Santiago, at the northern end. Chile \'s strong state gave it the upper hand in two nineteenth-century wars against Peru and Bolivia, expanding Chilean territory and national pride. By the mid twentieth century, the Chilean political system was a model for Latin America. The 1973 military coup and the subsequent seventeen-year dictatorship tarnished the model, but the country \'s strong economic growth after 1985 helped establish the prestige of the neoliberal economic formula throughout the continent. Topics: Araucanos Boom Novels European Immigration Nueva Canción Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: How did the meeting of Spaniards and Araucanos play out in comparison to the encounter of Indians and Europeans farther to the north, in Peru? What drove the Chilean economy in the late nineteenth century, leading the country to prosperity but also to war and the origins of what would later become strong labor movements? The neoliberal economic formula in Chile, as in other Latin American countries, has resulted in uneven prosperity, dimming the prestige of the formula. What are some illustrations of the declining prestige of neoliberalism? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Chile Since Independence. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.	This edited volume of essays brings together parts of the Cambridge History of Latin America in a format that is more manageable and useful for students. The essays are scholarly treatments of Chilean economic, social, and political history since independence.	** Collier, Simon, and William F. Sater. A History of Chile: 1808—1994. New York:	Cambridge University Press, 1996.	This historical survey is well-written and very appropriate for the undergraduate student, despite the fact that it is slightly longer than the other histories noted here. Collier and Sater concentrate primarily on independent Chile—since the early nineteenth century—but they also include a chapter on geography and the colonial foundations of Chile. A bibliographical essay, organized thematically, suggests accessible books in English for further reading.	Hickman, John. News from the End of the Earth: A Portrait of Chile. London: Hurst & Co.,	1998.	Hickman offers a succinct political history of Chile targeted at a broad audience of nonspecialists. Three quarters of the book deal with the economic history and Chilean politics in the second half of the twentieth century. Includes illustrations, maps, and a selection of further readings grouped by topic/field.	Kinsbrunner, Jay. Chile: A Historical Interpretation. Crosscurrents in Latin America. New	York: Harper and Row, 1973.	Kinsbrunner offers a framework for understanding colonial capitalism, the rise of liberalism in the nineteenth century, and other concepts that will be helpful for students to get the big picture of Chilean history up through the mid twentieth century. Note, however, that the book was written before the 1973 coup, making it less useful for students whose interests are largely contemporary.	** Loveman, Brian. Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 3rd ed. Latin American	Histories. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.	Like the other Latin American histories of the Oxford series, Loveman \'s is a remarkably thorough yet very readable survey of Chile from colonization up through 2001. Many maps and tables are included throughout the text, and a political timeline and clearly organized guide to further reading follow the narrative.	** Rector, John L. The History of Chile. Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003.	Another overview of Chilean history for the undergraduate student. While there are no illustrations or tables, and only one map, there are helpful suggested readings for each chapter, a glossary of Spanish terms, a timeline, and a brief list and description of important Chilean figures.	Villalobos R., Sergio. A Short History of Chile. Edited by John D. Chadburn. Santiago, Chile:	Editorial Universitaria, 1996.	A concise and useful account by a Chilean historian. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Chile Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[380]=new Array(381,"country/colombia.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography A Land Divided	Colombia is an Andean country and a Caribbean country and an Amazonian country. In addition, like Venezuela, Colombia has interior llanos in the Orinoco River basin. Also, the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers divide Colombia \'s Andes into large valleys, differing markedly in climate, cuisine, life-ways, and accent. In fact, for its size, Colombia is the most regionalized country in Latin America. Region is a primary reference in Colombian social life. Colombians typically get to know each other by establishing regional origins, each of which has certain behavioral and racial stereotypes attached. Tolimenses, Antioqueños, Vallunos, Costeños, Llaneros, and Pastusos (not nearly an exhaustive list) are expected to speak, look, and act differently from one another. While regional stereotypes exist all over Latin America (and the world) their profusion and intensity in Colombia is unusual. Partly, Colombian geography has created them, but partly each regional identity has itself become a project, elaborated in folklore, reiterated in humor, and reinforced by politics. Colombian political parties, for example, tend to be strongly regionalized. Natural obstacles of transportation have been reinforced by patterns of development. Colombia \'s highway system, for example, is unimpressive for a country of its considerable resources and technological know-how.	Colombia \'s other divisions, the ones that have made it the most conflictive country in Latin America today, have some regional dimensions, but mostly they are national problems. Colombia \'s guerrillas control certain parts of the country, but they remain more or less permanently on the move. Guerrilla forces have many regional fronts, but they respond to an overall national command. The drug mafias have regional bases, but their activities are nationwide. Even the paramilitary forces launched by landowners against the guerrillas have created a national organization. Colombia \'s divisions are a national problem, too, in another sense. Colombia \'s national government, its national state, has been historically weak, often unable to command the entire national territory. For a time during the mid 1800s, the country \'s regions virtually became independent republics in a loose national confederation. This historical background helps explain the proliferation of armed groups able to resist the control of the country \'s national armies in the late twentieth century. Topics: Coffee Current Crisis in Colombia Latin American Migration to the United States Boom Novels Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Where does Colombia fit in analytical schemes like sedentary/non-sedentary or core/fringe? What territory comprised Gran Colombia at the end of the wars of independence, and what factors led to its division? How has the drug trade contributed to Colombia \'s woes? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bushnell, David. The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself. Berkeley:	University of California Press, 1993. [1]	Well-written and thoroughly documented, the chapters are evenly balanced in focus on the colonial period, the nineteenth century, and the twentieth century through the early 1990s. The narrative foregrounds politics and ideologies. There is also a great photo-essay section, a set of comparative population charts (1825—1985), a list of the country \'s presidents, and a well-organized bibliographical essay.	Kline, Harvey. Colombia: Portrait of Unity and Diversity. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,	1983.	Students will find the first half of this concise, reader-friendly book most useful. Kline draws a clear historical picture of Colombia, beginning with land and demographics, moving on to the colonial period and the first century of independence (1830—1930), and finally surveying Colombian history from 1930 to the early 1980s. The second half of the book approaches government institutions, Colombia \'s economy, and Colombia \'s foreign relations, from the perspective of the early 1980s. Notes are included at the end of each chapter, and tables, maps, a selected readings list, and an index follow the narrative.	Posada-Carbó, Eduardo. The Colombian Caribbean: A Regional History, 1870—1950. New	York: Oxford University Press, 1996.	A serious scholarly close-up of one of Colombia \'s most historically important regions, the Caribbean coast. While not written for undergraduates, its introduction, prologue, and conclusion present useful summaries, and its chapter breakdown—agriculture, cattle, town and countryside, transport, and so on—lends itself to targeted reading. Over two-dozen figures, maps, and tables succinctly present points in the text.	** Safford, Frank and Marco Palacios. Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society. New	York: Oxford University Press, 2002.	Readable and broad in scope, this book constitutes an especially good starting place for undergraduate research on Colombia. Many tables and maps are included, as well as a bibliography of selected reading and an index. Students with a two-book reading assignment might compare this one to The Making of Modern Colombia. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Colombia Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[381]=new Array(382,"country/costarica.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | -- Questions | Bibliography Light on the Colonial Legacy	Costa Rica has long seemed exceptional in Central America, the country with few people of indigenous descent, the country where family farms predominated over large estates, the one country on the isthmus not shattered by the violence of dictatorship, revolution, and reaction in the late twentieth century. While exaggerated, the idea of Costa Rican exceptionalism has some truth. Moderate-sized coffee farms in the country \'s central highlands around San José did create a more even distribution of wealth in Costa Rica when compared to the other Central American countries. A political reform of the 1940s eliminated the national army, allowing Costa Ricans to brag that their country had more teachers than soldiers. In the contemporary period, Costa Rica \'s model system of parks and rainforest preserves is a magnate for eco-tourists. A different side of Costa Rica \'s economy, more in accord with the overall Central American pattern, is the presence of large American-owned banana plantations, worked by people of African descent, along the Caribbean coast. Topics: Boom Novels European Immigration From Perón to Dirty War Gauchos and Caudillos Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What factors help explain Costa Rica \'s light colonial legacy? Why was it not a major area of settlement for Spaniards? The foundation of the republic of Costa Rica came late—in the 1840s. How did this affect the development of a sense of national identity (promoted by the state) in this small nation? Was this different from other Central American republics, or in line with a pattern? Has the rise of eco-tourism helped transform the economy and resulted in improved living and working conditions for Costa Ricans? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Central America since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1991.	The first three chapters deal with Central America as a whole. Chapter 8 deals specifically with Costa Rica since 1930. A few maps are included, and an index and a bibliographical essay for each chapter follow the text.	Edelman, Marc, and Joanne Kenen, eds. The Costa Rica Reader. New York: Grove	Weidenfeld, 1989.	Primary and secondary sources dealing with Costa Rica, organized both chronologically and thematically. A short bibliography and index are included.	Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central America as a whole from the Pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama and Belize) and a chronology.	** Molina, IvÁn, and Steven Palmer. The History of Costa Rica. San José: Editorial de la	Universidad de Costa Rica, 1998.	This fast general history, published in English by the University of Costa Rica, is written for the nonspecialist audience, and undergraduates will appreciate its brevity. The text is followed by a short bibliographical essay, a chronology, and an index.	**Pérez-Brignoli, Héctor. A Brief History of Central America. Translated by Ricardo B. Sawrey	A. and Susana Stettri de Sawrey. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.	This slightly older book presents an overview of the region \'s history, beginning with the land and the people and ending with the political and social crises faced by many Central American nations at the end of the 1980s. Maps, a chronology, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Wilson, Bruce M. Costa Rica: Politics, Economics, and Democracy. Boulder, CO: Lynne	Rienner Publishers, 1998.	Wilson, a political scientist, focuses on the second half of the twentieth century. Charts, a bibliography, and an index are included.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided , 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999.	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Ecuador Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[382]=new Array(383,"country/cuba.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography The Closest of Enemies?	No other Latin American country, except Mexico, looms so large in the consciousness of the United States. It makes sense. A close trading relationship has tied Cuba and the United States together since the early 1800s. During most of that century, Cuba (along with Puerto Rico) remained a Spanish colony, but U.S. capital already flowed into Cuban sugar plantations, and Cuban habanera music already enlivened U.S. popular culture. Cubans, in turn, substituted baseball for bullfighting even before breaking with Spain. The Cuban-U.S. political relationship has remained intense since the U.S. involvement in Cuba \'s war for independence (1898). Since the revolution of 1959, the subsequent rupture of diplomatic relations, and the imposition of a U.S. embargo, the governments of the United States and Cuba have been the closest of enemies. Because of outstanding U.S. claims for property expropriated by Cuban revolutionaries in the early 1960s, the U.S. government continued to keep Cuba generally off-limits to U.S. citizens after the end of the Cold War, when travel to other Communist countries became routine. The island became increasingly isolated commercially and diplomatically in the 1990s with the collapse of Communism in Russia and Eastern Europe. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, much seemed to hang on the longevity of Fidel Castro, who had led Cuba \'s revolution since its inception.	From the outside, Cuba figures in the U.S. imagination above all as an ideological sign. The Cuban revolution starkly divides supporters and opponents. Within Cuba, on the other hand, ideology is not the center of national life. More mundane matters, like east-west regional differences, come into view. Western Cuba, the location of Havana, has also been the main producer of Cuba \'s great crop, sugar. Mountainous eastern Cuba is the poor relation in this family group. As often happens with less-developed regions (Appalachia, the Brazilian Northeast, or the Argentine Northwest, for example), eastern Cuba represents the main repository of folk culture, centered in the city of Santiago, where the Spanish made their first capital on the island. Topics: African Background Cuban Revolution The Music and the Conquered World National Identities in the Caribbean Slavery and Abolition Neo-African Religions Sugar Themes: Religion (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Indigenous populations of the Caribbean were quickly decimated after the arrival of Spaniards. What led to this destruction of human lives, what consequences did it bring for the region, and how did the encounter of Spaniards with Indians differ in Mesoamerica and South America? Though Cuba was one of the last colonies to become independent from Spain, the argument can be made that a sense of national identity or Cubaness developed throughout the 1800s, before the end of colonial rule. What are some illustrations of this development, and how did race enter in? Our parents \' attitudes often color our own world view. How do your family members, especially those of older generations, think about Cuba, and how has that affected your own understanding of U.S.-Cuban relations? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Bethell, Leslie, ed. Cuba: A Short History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.	A collection drawn from the large-scale Cambridge History of Latin America. The four essays begin with Cuba in the mid-eighteenth century, shift to movements for independence and the years of U.S. influence in the early twentieth century, and then focus on Cuba since 1930. Each has an accompanying bibliographical essay.	** Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 2nd ed.	New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.	Knight \'s regional history aims to put the national experience of each country within the larger historical context of the Caribbean. The survey begins with a comparative look at the pre-Hispanic Caribbean, shifts to colonization, slavery and plantation society, and then on to imperial fragmentation. In the second half of the book, Knight focuses on individual national cases. Maps, tables, a timeline, and a bibliographical essay on suggested readings are included.	Palmer, Colin A., and Franklin W. Knight, eds. The Modern Caribbean. Chapel Hill: The	University of North Carolina Press, 1989.	This collection of essays on the region of the Caribbean is intended for the general public and undergraduate students. Of use to the student looking for brief introductions to the region as a whole, and Cuba in particular, are Palmer \'s and Knight \'s regional overview and Knight \'s essay on Cuba from independence to the mid 1980s. A detailed bibliography is included.	** Pérez, Jr., Louis A. Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution, 2nd ed. Latin American	Histories. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.	A thorough and authoritative general history of Cuba. Readers will find many tables and maps throughout the text, along with a political chronology at the end. An extensive guide to literature—organized by themes and types of writing—on Cuba is also included.	** Staten, Clifford L. The History of Cuba. Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003.	An accessible introduction for students and nonspecialists. A timeline, list of historical figures, and a brief bibliographic essay accompany the narrative.	Suchlicki, Jaime. Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond , 5th ed. rev. Washington,	D.C.: Brassey \'s, 2002.	A readable overview that concentrates on the twentieth century. Included are a handful of maps and an annotated bibliography of suggested readings. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Cuba Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",19);arrFiles[383]=new Array(384,"country/dominicanrepublic.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Half of Hispaniola	The Dominican Republic and French-speaking Haiti share the island of Hispaniola, where Columbus himself began Spanish colonization of America. Like Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic has a Caribbean political history, being more under the thumb of imperial powers than the rest of Latin America. The colonial division of the island into Spanish and French colonies shows European competition for Caribbean territory. Spain actually reclaimed the Dominican Republic for a few years in the 1860s. Annexation to the United States seemed a possibility for a time. In the early twentieth century, two decades of U.S. military occupation made its mark, for good (introducing the sport of baseball, for example) and for ill (giving rise to the durable dictator Rafael Trujillo). Even Haiti has invaded and dominated the Dominican Republic shortly after Haiti \'s independence, postponing Dominican independence until the 1840s. The troubled relationship with Haiti is a recurrent theme in Dominican life. In 1938, Dominicans conducted a government-instigated massacre of Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border between the two countries. Like Latin America as a whole, however, the Dominican Republic manages to be a place of irrepressible good spirits despite its difficult history. Two of the rhythms currently dominant in the international Latin dance scene, merengue and bachata, come from the Dominican Republic. Topics: African Background National Identities in the Caribbean Haiti Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Hispaniola is where the encounter between Europeans and indigenous Americans began. The historical record of their first meetings is limited, but nevertheless provides insight into how Europeans perceived the Indians and some of their ways of life. Consider selections from Columbus \'s diary—available in English translation—and then describe a) what biases are evident in the writing and b) the value of the selections as a primary source. Indigenous populations of the Caribbean were quickly decimated after the arrival of Spaniards. What led to this destruction of human lives, what consequences did it bring for the region, and how did the encounter of Spaniards with Indians differ in Mesoamerica and South America? What have been the motivations behind varying periods of U.S. intervention on this half of the island, and what consequences has U.S. intervention had for the country \'s economy and everyday life for Dominicans? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Bell, Ian. The Dominican Republic. Boulder , CO: Westview Press, 1981.	An older book by a diplomat who spent a number of years living in the Dominican Republic. While it devotes considerable space to the colonial period and the nineteenth-century emergence of a republic separate form Haiti, most of the narrative centers on politics and economics throughout the twentieth century. Student readers will find the prose accessible. Many maps, tables, and photographs give life to the text, too.	** Moya Pons, Frank. The Dominican Republic: A National History. New Rochelle, NY:	Hispaniola Books, 1995.	This comprehensive historical survey of the Dominican Republic is geared for a nonspecialist audience. Maps, an index, and a detailed bibliography for each chapter follow the text.	** Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism , 2nd ed.	New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.	Knight \'s regional history aims to put the national experience of each country within the larger historical context of the Caribbean. The survey begins with a comparative look at the pre-Hispanic Caribbean, shifts to colonization, slavery, and plantation society, and then on to imperial fragmentation. In the second half of the book Knight focuses on individual national cases. Maps, tables, a timeline, and a bibliographical essay on suggested readings are included.	SagÁs, Ernesto, and Orlando Inoa. The Dominican People: A Documentary History.	Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2003.	For students seeking to work with primary sources in English. The editors place each document in its historical context.	** Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek. The Dominican Republic: A Caribbean	Crucible, 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992.	A basic historical survey from a political-science perspective. Maps, tables, a bibliography of selected readings, and an index accompany the narrative. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of the Dominican Republic Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[384]=new Array(385,"country/ecuador.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography The Andean Paradigm	Ecuador (like Peru and Bolivia) is a fundamentally Andean country. Not only do the Andes dominate the Ecuadorian landscape, they dominate the country \'s history as well. Today \'s Ecuador stood at the northern tip of the Inca Empire. A string of high Andean valleys were home to the brunt of the Ecuadorian population from Inca times down to the 1960s, and the Incan language, called Quichua (rather than Quechua) in modern Ecuador, is still widely spoken there today. Geographically, the Andes divide Ecuador into three parts: the highlands, with the ancient capital Quito in the center of the country; the Amazonian lowlands to the east; and the Pacific coastal region to the west.	The Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador were long sparsely populated, lying on the margin of national life. In the late twentieth century, migration from the highlands, exploitation of petroleum deposits beneath the rainforest, and spillover from guerrilla conflict in neighboring Colombia have drawn increased attention to the eastern lowlands of Ecuador. Since colonial times, however, the port of Guayaquil on Ecuador \'s Pacific coast has been the second city in size and economic weight, not to mention political importance. While highland Quito is the perpetual center of conservative power, Guayaquil has perennially been its liberal, populist challenger. In recent decades, migration from the highlands to the coast has made that region the highland \'s equal in population terms for the first time in Ecuador \'s history. Topics: Amazonia The Inca Empire Indigenista Novels Peru Bolivia Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What bound places on the edge of the Inca empire, like today \'s Ecuador, to the empire \'s center of power? How did independence play out differently in Ecuador \'s distinct regions? What factors have sparked the recent migration from the highlands to the coast, and what has been its impact? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Linke, Lilo. Ecuador: Country of Contrasts , 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.	Although almost half a century old, this remains the most complete English-language introduction to twentieth-century Ecuador. Linke first takes the reader from geographical characteristics to demographic patterns. A brief chapter titled History covers pre-Columbian Ecuador all the way up to twentieth-century politics. The rest of the book is divided into short chapters on topics such as political parties, the Indian Problem, literature and art, economic production, and, among others, foreign relations. Students will find the book readable but should recall its age. Maps, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Von Hagen, Victor Wolfgang. Ecuador and the GalÁpagos Islands. Norman: University of	Oklahoma Press, 1949.	Another of the few books in English on Ecuadorian history per se, this book is even more out of date than the preceding one. Indeed, it is most interesting as an example of older scholarship on Latin America. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Ecuador Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[385]=new Array(386,"country/elsalvador.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Guatemala \'s Historical Rival	Tiny, densely populated El Salvador is a fertile piece of Central America \'s indigenous Pacific Coast heartland. The Spanish colonized it vigorously because of the presence of the Aztec-influenced, fully sedentary Pipil people. Unlike the other Central American countries, however, it has no sparsely populated Caribbean region into which its burgeoning population can expand. El Salvador \'s brief 1968 war with Honduras owed partly to the spillover of Salvadoran population onto Honduran land. El Salvador \'s large population made it a historical rival to Guatemala, both politically and economically. After independence, El Salvador became Central America \'s liberal stronghold, toe to toe in isthmian politics, with the Conservative stronghold in Guatemala. After 1870, El Salvador had the most dynamic economy in Central America, a showcase of intensive coffee production on modern plantations. But plantation agriculture enriches only plantation owners, and the chronic poverty of the Salvadoran countryside dates, ironically, from this period of neocolonial prosperity. It is this long-term situation of population pressure on limited land, as well as the revolutionary uprising of the 1980s, that caused so many Salvadorans to emigrate to the United States, where they settled particularly in and around Washington, D.C. Topics: Coffee Latin American Migration to the United States The Revolutionary Left in El Salvador Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What allowed for the rise of coffee cultivation in El Salvador in the late nineteenth century, and what were the immediate and more long-term social, economic, and environmental consequences? What happened to El Salvador \'s large population of indigenous people? In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the U.S. intervened in a number of Central American countries and supported factions in civil wars. What were U.S.-Salvadoran relations like during this period? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places. As is the case with the historiography of other Central American countries, there is a lack of recent, general histories of El Salvador in English.)	Baloyra, Enrique A. El Salvador in Transition. Chapel Hill: The University of North	Carolina Press, 1982.	Concentrates narrowly on the historical background to the civil war of the 1980s. Extensive notes, appendices, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Barry, Tom. El Salvador: A Country Guide , 2nd ed. Albuquerque: The Inter-Hemispheric	Education Resource Center, 1991.	A good source on the crisis of the 1980s. Notes, a chronology, a bibliography, and a handful of maps accompany the narrative.	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Central America since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1991.	The first three chapters deal with Central America as a whole. Chapter 5 deals specifically with El Salvador since 1930. A few maps are included, and an index and a bibliographical essay for each chapter follow the text.	** Browning, David. El Salvador: Landscape and Society. Oxford, England: Clarendon	Press, 1971.	A long-term study of how the Salvadoran landscape has changed over the centuries provides an introduction to the country \'s rural history.	** Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central America as a whole from the pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama and Belize) and a chronology.	Murray, Kevin, with Tom Barry. Inside El Salvador. Albuquerque, NM: Resource Center	Press, 1995.	An expanded version of Tom Barry \'s El Salvador: A Country Guide.	**Pérez-Brignoli, Héctor. A Brief History of Central America. Translated by Ricardo B.	Sawrey A. and Susana Stettri de Sawrey. Berkeley: University of California Press,	1989.	This slightly older book presents an overview of the region \'s history, beginning with the land and the people and ending with the political and social crises faced by many Central American nations at the end of the 1980s. Maps, a chronology, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	White, Alastair. El Salvador . New York: Praeger, 1973.	This is one of the few general histories of El Salvador in English.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided , 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999.	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of El Salvador Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[386]=new Array(387,"country/guatemala.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Land of the Mayas	The Mayas dominate the history of Guatemala. Western Honduras and southern Mexico were also home to branches of Mayan civilization, but the lowland forests and misty highlands of Guatemala were its principal setting. The sprawling and still mostly unexcavated city of Tikal, in the Guatemalan north, was the largest and most imposing Mayan settlement ever. Large, fully sedentary Mayan populations attracted the Spanish conquerors from Mexico soon after the destruction of the Aztecs, but Guatemala did not have Mexico \'s wealth in silver, so it remained a second-tier colony within the Spanish Empire. The Kingdom of Guatemala, as it was known during the colonial period, included all of Central America down to Costa Rica, but the territory of present-day Guatemala was always the most populous part by far, and the capital, Guatemala City, was always the most important urban center in Central America, site of the University of San Carlos, founded in 1676.	The wealth of Guatemala lay not in precious metals but in the Mayans themselves. Vestiges of colonial labor drafts existed in Guatemala until the dawn of the twentieth century. Especially in the western highlands around Quetzaltengo, a city of Mayan origin (as Guatemala City is not), indigenous people composed not only a rural peasantry, but more complex ethnic communities, including a prosperous and partly urban upper class that aspired to modernize while remaining Mayan. In the mid-to-late twentieth century, social revolutionaries have struggled to transform the Guatemalan countryside, with some success, despite determined and ruthless opposition. To escape the conflict, Guatemalan refugees have poured out of the country, many immigrating to the United States. Topics: Banana Republics Coffee Latin American Migration to the United States Mayan Civilization The Missionary Urge Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What power structures governed Mayan society in its most vibrant period, long before the arrival of Spaniards? How did these structures compare with those of Aztec society? How do the Mayas fit into the idea of what it meant to be Guatemalan? What are the high points, or perhaps low points, of Guatemala \'s turbulent Cold War history? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Barry, Tom. Inside Guatemala. Albuquerque, NM: The Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource	Center, 1992.	An expanded version of Barry \'s Guatemala: A Country Guide, this book is best described as a guide to events shaping recent political history in Guatemala, specifically from the early 1980s to the early 1990s. Notes, statistical figures, a short bibliography, and a chronology are included. No index.	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Central America since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1991.	The first three chapters deal with Central America as a whole. Chapter 4 deals specifically with Guatemala since 1930. A few maps are included, and an index and a bibliographical essay for each chapter follow the text.	** Calvert, Peter. Guatemala: A Nation in Turmoil. Westview Profiles, Nations of	Contemporary Latin America. Boulder: Westview Press, 1985.	Though a bit dated, this historical overview is one of the most complete written in English, and the prose is reader friendly. Maps, illustrations, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central America as a whole from the Pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama and Belize) and a chronology.	** Handy, Jim. Gift of the Devil: A History of Guatemala. Boston: South End Press, 1984.	This book connects the political violence of the late twentieth century to the country \'s colonial origins. A couple of maps, notes, and an index are included.	Jonas, Susanne. The Battle for Guatemala: Rebels, Death Squads, and U.S. Power. With a	forward by Edelberto Torres Rivas. Latin American Perspectives Series. Boulder, CO:	Westview Press, 1991.	A detailed exploration of Guatemala in the Cold War. Useful and clearly organized, but somewhat challenging for undergraduate readers. Illustrations, a chronology, a dense bibliography, and an index follow the narrative.	**Pérez-Brignoli, Héctor. A Brief History of Central America. Translated by Ricardo B.	Sawrey A. and Susana Stettri de Sawrey. Berkeley: University of California Press,	1989.	This slightly older book presents an overview of the region \'s history, beginning with the land and the people and ending with the political and social crises faced by many Central American nations at the end of the 1980s. Maps, a chronology, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999. [regional history, but 1]	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Guatemala Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[387]=new Array(388,"country/honduras.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Deep Waters	Honduras and Nicaragua have much in common, especially a long Caribbean coast where outside influences, especially those of Great Britain and the United States, have been strong. The name Honduras refers to deep Caribbean waters. Yet, as with Nicaragua, the historical center of Honduras has been on the Pacific side, the region in which the Spanish found some gold in the colonial period, yet not enough to make Honduras really wealthy. In the late 1800s, U.S. banana companies set up shop on the Caribbean coast, and that part of the country remained the most dynamic in economic terms through the twentieth century. Another important aspect of that coast, distinctive to Honduras, is the presence of the Garifuna (pronounced gaREEfuna) people. The Garifunas appear to be predominantly of African descent, yet they speak the language of the Carib Indians who once inhabited much of the Caribbean. For that reason, they are sometimes called Black Caribs. The Honduran capital, Tegucigalpa, and the Caribbean coastal metropolis of San Pedro Sula are rapidly growing cities, yet Honduras is today the rare Latin American country whose population remains predominantly rural. Topics: Latin American Migration to the United States Banana Republics Coffee Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Why has the Caribbean coast of Central America been so vulnerable to encroachment by outside influences? Borders between countries are often hostile places, where many efforts—effective or not—are made to keep out those from the other side. The U.S.-Mexico border is one that all of us in the U.S. are familiar with. Similar border relationships exist in Latin America, like the one between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. What was the border relationship of Honduras like with its neighbors, especially El Salvador, during the twentieth century? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places. As is the case with the historiography of other Central American countries, there is a lack of recent, general histories of Honduras in English.)	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Central America since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1991.	The first three chapters deal with Central America as a whole. Chapter 6 deals specifically with El Salvador since 1930. A few maps are included, and an index and a bibliographical essay for each chapter follow the text.	** Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central America as a whole from the pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. The book includes illustrations, tables, and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama and Belize) and a chronology.	Norsworthy, Kent, with Tom Barry. Inside Honduras. Albuquerque: Resource Center Press,	1994.	Like other books published by the Resource Center (known also as the Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center), this one is a guidebook of sorts to current events, not a history. The Resource Center is a research institute that focuses most heavily on Central America and U.S. foreign policy. Its publications, including this one on Honduras, follow a standard organization, with chapters on politics, the military, economics, social movements, and foreign relations. Inside Honduras (an updated version of Honduras: A Country Guide, published by the same authors) deals above all with politics in Honduras during the 1980s and 90s.	Morris, James A. Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers. Westview Profiles,	Nations of Contemporary Latin America. Boulder: Westview Press, 1984.	A political history centering on the years spanning from the 1950s to the early 1980s. Charts, illustrations, notes, a brief bibliography, and an index accompany the narrative.	Newson, Linda. The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras Under Spanish Rule.	Dellplain Latin American Studies, no. 20. Boulder: Westview Press, 1986.	A rare book on colonial Honduras, most students will not want to read it cover to cover. They will benefit most from the introduction on patterns of conquest in Central America and the two chapters that make up part three, dealing respectively with Conquest, Slaves, and Gold and the cultural and demographic cost of colonization from 1502 1550. Maps, notes, a glossary, a bibliography, and an index are included.	**Pérez-Brignoli, Héctor. A Brief History of Central America. Translated by Ricardo B.	Sawrey A. and Susana Stettri de Sawrey. Berkeley: University of California Press,	1989.	This slightly older book presents an overview of the region \'s history, beginning with the land and the people and ending with the political and social crises faced by many Central American nations at the end of the 1980s. Maps, a chronology, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999.	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Honduras Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[388]=new Array(389,"country/index.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search COUNTRY INDEX	Choose Country from the below listed Topics. Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Puerto Rico Uruguay Venezuela Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",12);arrFiles[389]=new Array(390,"country/mexico.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography Heartland of the Americas	Mexican history has it all. What is today Mexico was one of the world \'s great centers of original food production, the domestication of plants from corn to tomatoes to chocolate. Its unique modern cuisine stands as a reminder of this ancient heritage. Partly as a result of these nutritional resources, central Mexico was decidedly the most densely populated place in the Americas in 1492. The European invasion and conquest of Mexico constitutes an epic story that has most often been told as a fable of European superiority or Spanish iniquity. However it is told, it is unquestionably central to global history, a key moment in the expansion of European imperialism. By 1800, New Spain (as Mexico was then called) had become Spain \'s most precious imperial jewel, producing much of its colonial revenue. Mexico \'s struggle for independence garnered the most explosive popular participation in America, in Hidalgo \'s 1810 uprising, and had one of the most conservative outcomes. Its nineteenth-century was among the most turbulent, including the fleeting reigns of two Mexican emperors, a full-scale French invasion, and a war of national resistance, as well as many civil conflicts. Then Mexico underwent the very apogee, the text-book example, of a law-and-order dictatorship that attracted international capital and oversaw export growth in a neocolonial mode: the thirty-year rule of Porfirio Diaz. Next, Mexican history really got interesting with the advent of the twentieth century \'s first great social revolution in 1910, followed by three decades of political experimentation and recurrent popular mobilizations for, and against, it. No wonder about half of all U.S. historians of Latin America focus on Mexico.	Any place of such ancient and abundant human habitation is complexly regionalized. To get a basic fix on Mexico, however, a simple tripartite scheme will do. The central highlands of Mexico, site of Mexico City, compose the first region. This high mountain plateau (or rather, series of them) produced waves of ambitious empire-builders before the Spanish arrived, and the European newcomers made it the center of their own imperial project, partly because they valued its cool climate. As a result, the population of the central highlands is, in most places, markedly mestizo. Southern Mexico, in contrast, is more strongly indigenous. This region is home to the majority of Mexicans who speak indigenous languages, for example. In addition, southern Mexico, much of which is densely mountainous, has had a somewhat troubled relationship with the center. Famously aloof from the rest of Mexico, the YucatÁn peninsula was the scene of tenacious indigenous resistance to the Mexican state for much of the 1800s. Chiapas, a former Guatemalan province that joined Mexico only in the 1820s, is the location of today \'s Zapatista insurgency. Indices of development in the south are the lowest of the three regions. The north, as so often happens, is commonly viewed as the south \'s rough opposite. In the common Mexican stereotype, the north is the whitest part of the country, the newest part of ancient Mexico. Silver mining was the first activity to draw more population into the North, but eventually the main economic attractions of the region became associated with the United States. Railroads, mining enterprises, cattle, and eventually agriculture and manufacturing connected northern Mexico to the United States. Northerners, it may be said, both launched and won the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The principal northern city, Monterrey, became a center of steel production. Economic opportunities attracted inflows of capital and people. In 1999, the first successful challenge to the dinosaurs of the Institutional Revolutionary Party was lead by a northerner from Monterrey with a non-Spanish surname, Fox. Topics: The Aztec Empire Caste Paintings The Porfiriato and the Revolution The Virgin of Guadalupe NAFTA Latin American Migration of the United States U.S. Latinos Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) Race (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What power structures governed pre-Columbian societies in Mexico, and how did Spaniards capitalize on these throughout the process of colonization? How does the story of the encounter in Mexico compare with the Caribbean or in different regions of South America? How did the regional differences play into Mexico \'s turbulent nineteenth century? What questions of race fueled or were affected by the many wars its inhabitants faced throughout the century? The twentieth century saw the love-hate relationship between Mexico and the U.S. become more deeply entrenched on both sides of the border. How have the neoliberal years and NAFTA continued this storyline into the new century or bucked the trend? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	There are many good general histories of Mexico in English, more than on any other Latin	American country. Below are some of the most recent and useful for undergraduate students.	Burke, Michael. Mexico: An Illustrated History. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1999.	As the title indicates, this historical survey offers what many lack: a wealth of illustrations—	paintings, photographs of nineteenth-century railroads and of soldiers during the Mexican	Revolution, and so on.	Fehrenbach, T. R. Fire and Blood: A History of Mexico, updated ed. New York: Da Capo	Press, 1995.	A thorough and clear, but quite lengthy, narrative overview.	** Hamnett, Brian. A Concise History of Mexico. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge:	Cambridge University Press, 1999.	Packed with detail conveyed in clear prose, students will find this history of Mexico to be one of the most useful. Illustrations, maps, a bibliography organized thematically and chronologically, and an index complement the narrative.	** Kirkwood, Burton. The History of Mexico. The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations.	Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.	Clearly written and readily available. A historical timeline, section on notable people in Mexican history, bibliographic essay, and an index complement the narrative.	Meyer, Michael C., and William H. Beezley, eds. The Oxford History of Mexico. New York:	Oxford University Press, 2000.	A reader-friendly collection of historical essays allows students to target their reading to suit their interests. Photos, detailed maps, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Meyer, Michael C., and William L. Sherman. The Course of Mexican History, 5th ed. New	York: Oxford University Press, 1995.	A narrative text on Mexican history written with undergraduates in mind. Numerous illustrations and maps are interspersed throughout the text, and each chapter is followed by a list of suggested further readings in English. An index is included.	Pilcher, Jeffrey M., ed. The Human Tradition in Mexico. The Human Tradition Around the	World, 6. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003.	As part of a collection that focuses on history from the bottom up, this volume focuses on individual people and ranges from the 1700s to the influence of contemporary neoliberalism. Written with the undergraduate in mind, each essay ends with a list of suggested readings. An index is included.	Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo. Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People. New York:	Norton, 1992.	An engaging, though lengthy, narrative history of Mexico from a Mexican perspective. A bibliography organized by theme and an index are included.	Shorris, Earl. The Life and Times of Mexico. New York: Norton, 2004.	A creative narrative of Mexican history that catches the reader \'s attention from the start, which is important, because it is close to 750 pages long and not easy to skip around in. Maps, a photo essay, and an index are included.	Suchlicki, Jaime. Mexico: From Montezuma to the Fall of the PRI, 2nd ed. Washington, DC:	Brassey \'s, 2001.	A manageable overview. Informative illustrations, a list of suggested readings, and an index are included. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Mexico Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",21);arrFiles[390]=new Array(391,"country/nicaragua.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Defiant Land	No Latin American nation has had a more troubled relationship with the United States than has Nicaragua. As with the case of Puerto Rico, U.S. interest in Nicaragua has been more strategic than economic. During much of the 1800s, Nicaragua was viewed as a potential site for an inter-oceanic canal of the sort eventually constructed in Panama. During those years, the British exerted considerable influence on the country \'s Caribbean coast and competed with the United States for influence in Nicaragua as a whole. The British presence had a lasting influence, making English a common language around the Caribbean port of Bluefields. In the 1850s, U.S. adventurer William Walker briefly seized control of Nicaragua. Then in 1912, U.S. marines began two decades of intermittent presence in the country, culminating in the anti-U.S. guerrilla war led by Augusto César Sandino. From the 1930s through the 1970s, the United States maintained a powerful political presence in Nicaragua through its close alliance with the ruling Somoza family. Then came the strongly anti-U.S. revolutionary movement of the second-wave Sandinistas, who ousted the Somozas and ruled Nicaragua in the 1980s—under constant attack, for much of that time, by the U.S.-supported Contra guerrillas. Topics: Latin American Migration to the United States U.S. Marines vs. Sandinistas Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What made Nicaragua a place of strategic interest for Spain, and later the United States and Britain? How do the ties between the United States and the Somoza family fit into the larger context of U.S.—Central American relations? One of the goals of the revolutionary movement of the 1970s and 80s was to spread literacy throughout Nicaragua. What were some of the other goals and hopes of the movement, how were they manifested (in official programs, in poetry), and to what degree were they achieved? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places. As is the case with the historiography of other Central American countries, there is a lack of recent, general histories of Nicaragua in English.)	Bethell, Leslie, ed. Central America since Independence. New York: Cambridge University	Press, 1991.	Chapter 7 deals specifically with Nicaragua since 1930. Particular attention is given to U.S. intervention in Nicaragua. An index and a bibliographical essay for each chapter follow the text.	Burns, E. Bradford. Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 1798—1858.	Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.	This look at Nicaragua \'s early national history is clearly written and focuses on themes that readers of Born in Blood and Fire will recognize: patriarchal structure of society, patron-client relations, and the idea of the nation. Notes, a chronology, and an index are included.	Crawley, Eduardo. Nicaragua in Perspective, rev. ed. of Dictators Never Die. New York: St.	Martin \'s Press, 1984.	A journalistic account (i.e., accessible but not deep) of Nicaraguan history. Only the first four of its twenty-two chapters cover the colonial years and the nineteenth century. The rest deal with the twentieth century. A bibliography, a few maps, and an index are included.	** Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central America as a whole from the pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama and Belize) and a chronology.	**Pérez-Brignoli, Héctor. A Brief History of Central America. Translated by Ricardo B.	Sawrey A. and Susana Stettri de Sawrey. Berkeley: University of California Press,	1989.	This slightly older book presents an overview of the region \'s history, beginning with the land and the people and ending with the political and social crises faced by many Central American nations at the end of the 1980s. Maps, a chronology, notes, a bibliography, and an index are included.	Walker, Thomas W. Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 3rd ed. rev. and updated. Westview	Profiles, Nations of Contemporary Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,	1991.	________. Nicaragua: Living in the Shadow of the Eagle, 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview	Press, 2003.	A political history that is concerned above all with the twentieth century, most appropriate for undergraduates interested in U.S.-Nicaraguan relations. A list of sources in English is provided, and numerous illustrations and an index are included.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999.	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Nicaragua Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[391]=new Array(392,"country/panama.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography Crossroads of the Americas	Panama \'s—location joining two continents and later, via its great canal, two oceans—makes it a natural crossroads. Crossing Panama was obligatory for Spanish colonizers and goods on their way to Peru, and for Peruvian silver on its way to Spain. In the independence period, Simón Bolívar convened a Pan American Congress to meet on the isthmus of Panama, where he envisioned that Spanish American republics might gather periodically as had the ancient Greek city states at the isthmus of Corinth. Panama was, at the time (1826), a province of Colombia, which it would remain until separated from Colombia in 1903 as part of the overall U.S. effort to create a trans-oceanic canal. The effort succeeded, and the Panama Canal became an important symbol of U.S. technological mastery in the twentieth century, also valuable to Panama and the world at large. However, the manner in which the canal was built and run resulted in much resented infringements of Colombian and, afterward, Panamanian sovereignty. By the 1960s, significant conflicts were occurring, and Panamanians were eager to terminate the multigenerational U.S. lease of the canal in the 1970s. Topics: Canal! Colombia Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What impact did the transport of goods and people across the isthmus have on Panama during the colonial period? How is Panama \'s history different from that of the other Central American republics? How did U.S.-Panamanian relations evolve over the twentieth century, and how have they changed since the turnover of the canal in the late 1990s? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places. As is the case with the historiography of other Central American countries, there is a lack of recent, general histories of Panama in English.)	Barry, Tom. Panama: A Country Guide. Albuquerque, NM: The Inter-Hemispheric Education	Resource Center, 1990.	Like other books published by the Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, this one is a guidebook to current events, not a history. The Resource Center is a research institute that focuses most heavily on Central America and U.S. foreign policy. Its publications, including this one on Panama, follow a standard organization, with chapters on politics, the military, economics, social movements, and foreign relations. A map, charts, notes, and a chronology are included. There is no index.	Biesanz, John, and Mavis Biesanz. The People of Panama. New York: Columbia University	Press, 1955.	Dated, but still useful for the first half of the twentieth century. Maps, illustrations, a bibliography, notes, and an index are included.	** Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts On File, 2000.	An accessible historical overview of Central American from the pre-Columbian era to the dawn of the present century. Chapter titles and subtitles clearly guide the reader through the narrative, and selections from primary and secondary sources are interspersed throughout the text to allow readers to focus on certain points. The book includes illustrations, tables and maps, a bibliography and index, a list of suggested readings, and appendices with basic facts for each country (including Panama) and a chronology.	Howarth, David. Panama: Four Hundred Years of Dreams and Cruelty. New York: McGraw-	Hill Book Company, 1966.	A dated but concise and entertaining narrative that approaches the history of Panama chronologically and thematically, with the thread of conquest and foreign intervention (from Europe and the U.S.) orienting many chapters. Maps, notes, sources for each chapter, and an index are included.	** Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1999.	A solid and well-told overview with an extensive guide to further reading, a set of charts and tables with statistical information, and a political chronology. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Panama Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",15);arrFiles[392]=new Array(393,"country/paraguay.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography Spanish American Frontier	South America \'s population is heavily concentrated along its coastline, so Paraguay is a major historical exception. Fairly dense populations of semisedentary Guaraní people attracted the Spanish to Paraguay, in the heart of South America, as early as the 1530s, decades before the colonizers paid much attention to the sparsely peopled coastal areas of what is now Argentina and Uruguay. Paraguay became the most substantial Spanish frontier outpost in the interior of the continent, a bulwark against Portuguese advances, a platform extensive Jesuit missions directed at the Guaraníes. Beginning in 1811, Paraguay achieved independence not only from Spain, but also from the control of Buenos Aires, which viewed Paraguay (along with Uruguay and Bolivia) as errant provinces of the Río de la Plata viceroyalty. But Paraguayan independence was maintained at the price of further isolation. Its sole transportation link to the Atlantic world, the ParanÁ river, ran for hundreds of miles through sometimes-hostile Argentine territory. Sometimes-hostile Brazil, for its part, presented a monolithic barrier to the north and east. Potential contacts to the west were blocked by the desolate Great Chaco region. Conflicts with neighbors, including the two most devastating international wars in the history of South America, reinforced a certain siege mentality on the part of the Paraguayan state. As a result, perhaps, of that siege mentality, Paraguay has endured several of the continent \'s longest-lasting dictatorships, most recently that of General Alfredo Stroessner, who ruled from 1954 to 1989. Topics: Paraguay on the Edge of the Storm Themes: Race (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: The Jesuits established an extensive system of missions in the area of colonial Paraguay. How does their relationship with the indigenous people compare to what happened elsewhere? Guaraní is the only indigenous American language that has come to be spoken by large numbers of people outside an indigenous community. How did that occur? What role does Guaraní play in Paraguayan life today? From the Paraguayan War of the 1860s to the Chaco War of the 1930s, war has taken its toll on Paraguayans. How has the country \'s demographic makeup changed after these periods of conflict, and how have Paraguayans dealt psychologically and physically with the consequences of these wars? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places. There is a lack of recent general histories of Paraguay in English.)	Gimlette, John. At the Tomb of the Inflatable Pig: Travels Through Paraguay. New York:	Knopf, 2003.	Written by a British lawyer who spent time in Paraguay in the 1980s, this recent book is a modern-day travelogue full of all the nineteenth-century emphasis on supposedly exotic people and customs. It could serve undergraduates as a curious introduction to Paraguay, but not as a general history or a work of historical scholarship. It is more a primary source than anything else.	Kleinpenning, Jan M. G. Paraguay: A Thematic Geography of its Development. 2 vols.	Madrid, Frankfurt: Iberoamericana, Vervuert, 2003.	This is one of the more recent books in English on Paraguay, but it is a scholarly work on historical geography targeted at a specialized audience. The only worthwhile section for undergraduates and those who are not close followers of the historical geography of Paraguay is the brief historical overview of the country from the colony to the end of the war of the Triple Alliance (1870).	Nickson, R. Andrew. Historical Dictionary of Paraguay, 2nd ed., rev. and enlgd. Metuchen, NJ:	Scarecrow Press, 1993.	As the title indicates, this book is not a narrative history of Paraguay, but rather a reference work. It contains maps and a chronology in addition to entries on geography, people, places, politics, traditions, wars, and so on. Students can thumb through the entries to get ideas about topics, or go straight to specifics if they have ideas in mind about what aspects of Paraguayan history they would like to explore. Perhaps most useful is the comprehensive bibliography, organized chronologically and thematically.	** Pendle, George. Paraguay: A Riverside Nation, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press,	1967.	Among the limited number of general histories of Paraguay written in English, this dated book provides a succinct historical overview that is easily accessible by undergraduate readers. A handful of maps throughout the text, numerous footnotes, and an annotated bibliography may also be of help to the student who wants to learn more about Paraguay.	** Roett, Riordan, and Richard Scott Sacks. Paraguay: The Personalist Legacy. Westview	Profiles, Nations of Contemporary Latin America. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991.	The series Westview Profiles of Latin American nations consists of survey texts written in large part by political scientists who, naturally enough, focus on political systems, political economy, and political history. Though part of this series, Paraguay: The Personalist Legacy offers a more in-depth historical overview than most. Undergraduates will benefit most from the introduction, the second chapter on colonial and nineteenth-century Paraguayan history (of course with sections on Francia and the War of the Triple Alliance), and the third chapter \'s look at the twentieth century. The economy, culture and society, and Paraguayan politics are the subjects of other chapters. On the whole, the book is clearly organized and written-a good first stop for those wanting to go further. Tables, maps, a bibliography, notes at the end of each chapter, and an index accompany the narrative.	** Warren, Harris Gaylord. Paraguay: An Informal History. Norman: University of Oklahoma	Press, 1949.	Warren \'s old but well-written and clearly organized history is one of the earliest studies in English of Paraguayan history. A chronological list of political figures, a bibliographical essay, and an index are also included.	White, Richard Alan. Paraguay \'s Autonomous Revolution, 1810—1840. Albuquerque:	University of New Mexico Press, 1978.	White \'s book offers a scholarly (but controversial) view of the rule of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia. The first part of the book serves as an introduction to colonial Paraguay, with special attention to the Jesuit missions. Parts two and three concentrate on independence in the Río de la Plata region and Francia \'s long rule, which White believes was beneficial to the country. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Paraguay Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[393]=new Array(394,"country/peru.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Inca Heartland	Peru stands historically at the heart of Andean America. Before the Spanish conquest, it was the center of the sprawling Inca Empire, with its highland capital at Cuzco, and afterward, the principal area of Spanish colonization in South America. The Spanish relocated the capital to the coast at Lima to facilitate communication with Spain. The Viceroyalty of Peru originally controlled the entire southern part of the continent, including modern-day Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile. In 1776, the creation of a new viceroyalty with its capital at Buenos Aires severed much of this territory from the control of Lima and struck the Peruvian economy a mortal blow. On the eve of independence, Peru was in full decline, completely eclipsed by Mexican wealth, population, and prestige. Independent Peru never recovered the prominence of its colonial heyday.	Peruvian geography follows a basic Andean layout: coastal plain, highlands, eastern lowlands. In the case of Peru, the entire coastal plain is a desert of looming sand dunes, interrupted occasionally by small valleys where rivers rush to the ocean, creating flat and fertile alluvial fans and opportunities of irrigation. These veritable oases that dot the coast were scenes of indigenous civilizations that far antedated the Incas, and they have continued to be important scenes of Peruvian agriculture ever since. But the majority of Peruvians lived in the vast Andean highlands that rise steeply from the coast. Here indigenous people predominated in the rural areas, and mestizos in the cities and towns. Finally, the eastern lowlands of Peru, the country \'s Amazonian region, has been the last part incorporated into national life. The isolation of forest-dwelling indigenous tribes in the Peruvian Amazon was broken first by the rubber boom around 1900. The late twentieth century saw accelerating migration into the region from the Andean highlands. At the same time, a larger migration from the highlands to the coast, especially to Lima, was transforming Peru \'s coastal capital into an Andean city. Topics: Disease The Inca Empire Indigenista Novels Lima and Coastal Peru The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780—1783 Ecuador Bolivia Potosí Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Peru was one of the last strongholds of Spanish colonial power. It was not until the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 that independence would come to Peru. What motivated Spanish bureaucrats and local Creole elites to resist the independence wave for so long? The development of national identity in twentieth-century Peru was closely connected to indigenous roots. What are some examples—ranging from literature of the early part of the century to social and political movements of the 1990s—that illustrate the link between the indigenous population and what it means to be Peruvian? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	** Dobyns, Henry F., and Paul L. Doughty. Peru: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford	University Press, 1976.	This overview of Peruvian history is meant for the undergraduate student and the nonspecialist reader. Politics and economics get their share of attention—especially since the wars of independence—but students will appreciate the emphasis on social and cultural history. Maps, a chronology, a guide to further reading organized thematically and chronologically, and an index are included.	** Klarén, Peter Flindell. Peru: Society and Nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford	University Press, 2000.	Klarén \'s survey of Peruvian history is also part of Oxford \'s series of Latin American histories for a general audience. Political history takes the lead, but the narrative will hold the reader \'s attention. Maps, tables, a bibliographical essay, and an index are included.	Hunefeldt, Christine. A Brief History of Peru. New York: Facts On File, 2004.	This general history is concise, detailed, and up-to-date, with the feel of an introductory textbook. A chronology, list of suggested further readings, and an index accompany the narrative. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Peru Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",17);arrFiles[394]=new Array(395,"country/puertorico.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography The Enchanted Isle	Puerto Rico has a mountainous interior of steep and thickly wooded slopes that create a certain amount of isolation even in short distances. Coffee is the most important crop in the interior. On the coastal plain that circles the island, the most important crop has been sugar. San Juan, the capital city, was a naval stronghold of Spain during the colonial period, making Puerto Rico more important strategically than economically. Along with Cuba, Puerto Rico remained under Spanish control through the 1800s, long after the rest of Spanish America gained independence. U.S. forces occupied both Puerto Rico and Cuba in 1898, but unlike Cuba, Puerto Rico was eventually annexed to the United States. Thus, Puerto Rico has never been a sovereign state. Today, it is a commonwealth associated with, and dominated by, the United States. Puerto Ricans can freely travel to the United States, enjoy citizenship rights, and, if they go elsewhere, carry U.S. passports. Yet Puerto Rico is not a state and has no representation in Congress. There have been Puerto Rican movements for independence, and also for statehood, but neither has gotten majority support within Puerto Rico. Still, Puerto Ricans want to remain themselves, maintaining the Spanish language along with distinctive musical and culinary traditions despite the massive presence of U.S. popular culture and fast food on the island. Topics: Coffee Sugar Latin American Migration to the United States National Identities in the Caribbean U.S. Latinos Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What made Puerto Rico an attractive location as a naval stronghold during the colonial period? What was the main threat to Spanish shipping to and from the New World? Though Puerto Rico was one of the last colonies to become independent from Spain, the argument can be made that a sense of national identity developed throughout the 1800s, before the end of colonial rule. What are some illustrations of this development, and how was race part of this form of collective identity? How has annexation to the United States influenced Puerto Rican national identity over the last fifty years? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Cripps Samoiloff, Louise. Portrait of Puerto Rico. New York: Cornwall Books, 1984.	The author of this dated overview provides a succinct history of the island from the colonial period to the second half of the century. The reading is not all that engaging, but students will find here a basic introduction to some problems in Puerto Rican history. Numerous photographs are interspersed throughout the text, and a bibliography and index follow the narrative.	** Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 2nd ed.	New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.	Knight \'s regional history is part of the reader-friendly Oxford series of Latin American Histories. His approach to the region aims to include each national experience within the larger historical context of the Caribbean. The survey begins with a comparative look at the pre-Hispanic Caribbean, shifts to colonization, slavery and plantation society, and then on to imperial fragmentation. In the second half of the book, Knight focuses on individual national cases. The chapters on the colonial Caribbean, social structure, and the case of nation building in Haiti and the Dominican Republic from the mid-nineteenth century to the late 1980s, would be helpful to undergraduates who want to learn more about both the region and Puerto Rico. Maps, tables, a timeline, and a bibliographical essay on suggested readings are included.	Malavet, Pedro A. America \'s Colony: the Political and Cultural Conflict between the United	States and Puerto Rico. New York: New York University Press, 2004.	This recent monograph is not a general history, but it does provide some readable chapters that are useful for the nonspecialist. In addition to the introduction and conclusion, undergraduates may find helpful the chapters on the legal relationship between the U.S. and Puerto Rico, Puerto Rican political culture, and a sense of nation in Puerto Rico. Notes and an index are included.	Maldonado-Denis, Manuel. Puerto Rico: A Socio-Historic Interpretation. Translated by Elena	Vialo. New York: Vintage, 1972.	This older historical overview was written in the Marxist current of the 1960s and 1970s, and students will note the author \'s position from the beginning. Despite its age and political leanings, it is a readable account that presents key problems in Puerto Rican history, mainly through the lens of political history. No index is included.	** Morales Carrión, Arturo, María Teresa Babín, Aida R. Caro Costas, Arturo Santana, and	Luis GonzÁlez Vales. Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History. New York: W.W.	Norton; Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1983.	Aimed at a general audience, the authors of the chapters of this slightly dated historical overview present a readable and balanced account of Puerto Rico from colonization on up through the second half of the twentieth century. Chapter titles such as towards a plantation society and the challenge to colonialism (1866 1897) serve as clear markers to guide students through the reading. While political history is a thread throughout the narrative, emphasis on Puerto Rican identities and cultural production are also part of the story. Those students interested in learning more about Puerto Rican history will thus find this book a good first stop. Illustrations, suggestions for further reading, organized by chapter, and an index accompany the text.	Wagenheim, Kal, and Olga Jiménez de Wagenheim, eds. The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary	History, enl. ed. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2002.	As the title suggests, this book is a sourcebook with documents that relate to Caribbean and Puerto Rican history from the encounter with Europeans up to the turn of the twenty-first century. Documents are arranged chronologically and thematically, and each section includes an introduction to the historical moment. This documentary history will be useful for students who, focusing on Puerto Rico or the Caribbean, want to get their hands on primary sources. Illustrations and an index are included.	Cripps Samoiloff, Louise. Portrait of Puerto Rico. New York: Cornwall Books, 1984.	A succinct history of the island from the colonial period to the second half of the century. Numerous photographs are interspersed throughout the text, and a bibliography and index follow the narrative.	Malavet, Pedro A. America \'s Colony: the Political and Cultural Conflict between the United	States and Puerto Rico. New York: New York University Press, 2004.	Not a general history, this recent scholarly study does provide some readable chapters that are useful for the non-specialist. In addition to the introduction and conclusion, undergraduates may find helpful the chapters on the legal relationship between the U.S. and Puerto Rico, Puerto Rican political culture, and a sense of nation in Puerto Rico. Notes and an index are included.	Maldonado-Denis, Manuel. Puerto Rico: A Socio-Historic Interpretation. Translated by Elena	Vialo. New York: Vintage, 1972.	This older historical overview was written in the Marxist vein so influential in Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s.	** Morales Carrión, Arturo, María Teresa Babín, Aida R. Caro Costas, Arturo Santana, and	Luis GonzÁlez Vales. Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History. New York: W.W.	Norton; Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1983.	A readable and balanced account of Puerto Rico from colonization through the second half of the twentieth century. Chapter titles such as towards a plantation society and the challenge to colonialism (1866-1897) serve as clear markers to guide students. Illustrations, suggestions for further reading, organized by chapter, and an index accompany the text.	Wagenheim, Kal, and Olga Jiménez de Wagenheim, eds. The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary	History, enl. ed. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2002.	A sourcebook with documents that relate to Caribbean and Puerto Rican history from the encounter with Europeans up to the turn of the twenty-first century. Documents are arranged chronologically and thematically, and each section includes an introduction to the historical moment. Illustrations and an index are included. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Puerto Rico Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",22);arrFiles[395]=new Array(396,"country/uruguay.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics Themes -- | Questions | Bibliography Argentina \'s Tiny Twin	La República Oriental del Uruguay, so-called because it is on the east or oriental side of the Uruguay River, is something like a mirror image of Argentina \'s Buenos Aires Province. The capital, Montevideo, with its excellent natural harbor, historically rivaled the port of Buenos Aires, which had no natural harbor at all. Similarly, Uruguay \'s cattle herds, watched over by gauchos exactly like Argentine gauchos, rivaled those of Buenos Aires province through the 1800s. Very similar currents of European immigration transformed both areas at the turn of the twentieth century. An expansion of public education made Uruguayan society among the most literate in the Americas during the twentieth century, and Uruguay, like Argentina, suffered a dirty war and military dictatorship in the 1970s.	Another aspect set the Uruguayan republic apart. It was created in 1828 partly by British arbitration to separate warring Argentina and Brazil, both of which claimed Uruguayan territory. Its reformist government of 1911—1916 gave Uruguay some of the world \'s most advanced social legislation and also made Uruguayan society among the world \'s most secular, while the church retained much greater influence in Argentina. Finally, while Buenos Aires province is part of a much larger nation, Uruguay is not. Its national population is only 3.4 million, smaller than many Latin American cities, and its natural resources are somewhat limited as well. These circumstances have led Uruguayans to wonder aloud, at times, whether their unusual little country was a viable long-term project. Topics: A Model Country European Immigration Gauchos and Caudillos Women \'s Movements Themes: Arts and Literature (Key Theme) -- Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: Like Argentina \'s, Uruguay \'s nineteenth century is largely the story of liberals from the urban port city battling traditionalists in the countryside and gradually installing liberal rule throughout the nation. One of the keys to this project was public education. In broad terms, what were the motivations for developing a system of public education in Uruguay, and where did educational leaders turn to for inspiration? Uruguay has the longest-lasting carnival period of any country in the world. Festivities go on for the whole month of February, and among these candombe is one of the big attractions. Though no longer seen in Buenos Aires, candombe gatherings—vivid expressions of Afro Latin American culture—were popular there, too, throughout the nineteenth century. How do the post-independence histories of the African populations in Argentina and Uruguay compare? Describe some of the characteristics of the progressive social legislation of the early twentieth century that set Uruguay on the path to becoming a model country. How have these characteristics held up or been modified since? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Alisky, Marvin. Uruguay: A Contemporary Survey. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969.	General histories on Uruguay in English do not abound, and the ones that are available are dated. This historical overview is in part an effort to update the earlier work of Russell H. Fitzgibbon (see below). Though an older introduction to Uruguay, it devotes space to cultural questions, like the education system and literature, as well as to more traditional political and economic developments. The bulk of the book focuses on the twentieth century, so those students in search of any sort of substantial historical synopsis of previous moments will have to look elsewhere. A short reading list and index follow the text.	Fitzgibbon, Russell H. Uruguay: Portrait of a Democracy. New York: Russell & Russell, 1966.	This overview of Uruguay is more a series of essays loosely related to historical events, moments, and people, than a general history. It is written in a playful style. The discussion of Uruguay at the middle of the twentieth century is outdated, as are some of the writer \'s stylistic tendencies.	** Pendle, George. Uruguay , 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.	This little book offers a nice introduction to Uruguay, with a historical focus. It begins with a look at the geographical characteristics of Uruguay and then moves quickly through the colonial period and independence to take a more thematic approach, somewhat losing sight of periodization. Though from the early 1960s, the author balances chapters on political and economic themes, like The Birth of the Welfare State, with ones that deal with Livestock, Agriculture, and Foreign Trade and culture. The statistical appendices will not be of much use to students, but the bibliography, organized by them, and chronology, can be a beginning reference for older sources.	** Weinstein, Martin. Uruguay: Democracy at the Crossroads. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,	1988.	As part of the Westview Profiles series on nations in Latin America, this volume is meant to introduce Uruguay to a general audience. Weinstein, a political scientist, orients the chapters and the fairly readable narrative around the theme of democracy and the particular nature of this political system as it has evolved in Uruguay. The first third of the book presents a highly condensed overview of the land, demographic character, economy, arts and culture, and history of Uruguay. The rest of the text concentrates on politics during the twentieth century, especially the transition to dictatorship and then back to democracy. Students will find the first four chapters most useful for a general take on Uruguayan history. Those particularly interested in the military dictatorship will want to focus on the second half of the book. Tables, reference notes, photos, maps, and an index are included. The selected bibliography is not very helpful.	Whitaker, Arthur P. The United States and the Southern Cone: Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay.	Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976.	Despite the title, only the last of the four parts deals with the relations between the U.S. and these countries. The rest of the book is divided into chapters that focus on national histories. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Uruguay Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",18);arrFiles[396]=new Array(397,"country/venezuela.htm","2005-12-12"," :: Welcome to Born in Blood & Fire - Second Edition - Student Website :: ","","","-- Homepage Topics Themes Timeline Statistics Search Topics | Themes | Questions | Bibliography A Bolivarian Republic	Venezuela is above all a Caribbean country. Unlike the Andean capital of neighboring Colombia, Venezuela \'s capital city, Caracas, is near the Caribbean, as are its historically important agricultural regions. Most Venezuelan accents have a Caribbean sound, not too distant from that of Colombia \'s neighboring Caribbean coast. African descent is as common in Venezuela as on other Caribbean shores. Like Cuba, Central America, and the Dominican Republic, not to mention Puerto Rico, Venezuela \'s cityscapes demonstrate the powerful cultural and economic impact of the United States. The traditional Spanish layout of colonial Caracas has virtually disappeared under a U.S.-style freeway system. As on other Caribbean shores, baseball takes precedence over soccer for Venezuelan sports fans too.	Venezuela has other faces as well. The last, comparatively low ridges of the Andes give the country its own Andean region bordering Colombia. As in Colombia, coffee has been this region \'s greatest cash crop. And the interior llanos, sprawling flood plains of the great Orinoco river, constitute a third region of historical importance. It was here that Simón Bolívar formed one of the great armies of the struggle for Latin American independence. Venezuela \'s llanos are continued in Colombia, another commonality between the two countries. Yet, there are tensions between these neighbors with much in common. For example, Venezuela \'s oil-driven prosperity has long attracted immigrants from Colombia seeking a better life, and some enter Venezuela without the stipulated visa, creating immigration issues similar to those between Mexico and the United States. Topics: The Liberators and Their Legacy African Background Coffee Themes: Race (Key Theme) Questions for Analysis and Further Reflection: What role did the llaneros —the cowboys of the llanos—play in the wars of independence, and how did Bolívar inspire them to side with the patriots? How has the current president Hugo ChÁvez made use of Bolívar \'s legacy, promoting Venezuela as the Bolivarian republic, capitalizing on the Liberator \'s actions there, in order to stimulate support for his policies? Put differently, how has ChÁvez made use of Venezuelan history? Country Bibliography: (Titles with ** are good starting places.)	Lieuwen, Edwin. Venezuela . London: Oxford University Press, 1961.	This older survey of Venezuela is not the most complete, but it is succinct and very reader-friendly. In fact, Lieuwen recounts Venezuelan history from the colonial era up to the mid twentieth century in two chapters (roughly eighty pages), one of which deals solely with the twentieth century. It would be wise of undergraduates to keep in mind when the book was published, especially if they are searching to learn more about the twentieth century. Maps, a bibliography, and an index are included.	** Lombardi, John V. Venezuela: The Search for Order, the Dream of Progress. New York:	Oxford University Press, 1982.	As part of the Oxford series of Latin American Histories, this well-balanced account is designed for the nonspecialist reader. It provides a thorough survey of Venezuelan history and will keep readers turning the pages. Lombardi is also careful to attend to more than just political and economic history, with an entire chapter on the narrative tradition in Venezuela and the theme of national identity. Numerous maps, tables, a bibliographical essay, an index, a thoroughly developed chronology, and statistical appendices complement the text.	** Morón, Guillermo. A History of Venezuela. Trans. and ed. John Street. New York: Roy	Publishers, 1963.	Though dated, Morón \'s survey offers a concise introduction to Venezuelan history. It is clearly (one could say rigidly) organized, which will help readers who are eager to learn more about a particular moment in Venezuela. Undergraduate readers interested in colonial, nineteenth-century, and early-twentieth-century Venezuela history will find this historical overview useful. Those looking for more on contemporary Venezuela, especially since the mid twentieth century, would do best to consult Lombardi. Maps, numerous illustrations, a bibliography, and an index are included. Maps: Basic political and physical maps of Venezuela Copyright 2006 © W. W. Norton | Credits | Site Feedback | Technical Support | Print This Page",16);arrFiles[397]=new Array(398,"country/assets/argentina_img01.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_img01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[398]=new Array(399,"country/assets/argentina_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Buenos Aires - Argentina \'s capital is one of the world \'s great cities, famous for its cuisine, cultural sophistication, its European orientation, and its urban folklore. Economic deterioration in recent years has dimmed its aura, however.",1);arrFiles[399]=new Array(400,"country/assets/argentina_img02.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[400]=new Array(401,"country/assets/argentina_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Another Argentina Northwestern Argentina has an Andean feel clearly evident in this photograph of an open market in the Province of Jujuy.",1);arrFiles[401]=new Array(402,"country/assets/argentina_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_img_big_01.gif","","","",77);arrFiles[402]=new Array(403,"country/assets/argentina_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_img_big_02.gif","","","",109);arrFiles[403]=new Array(404,"country/assets/argentina_map.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_map.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[404]=new Array(405,"country/assets/argentina_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[405]=new Array(406,"country/assets/argentina_map02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[406]=new Array(407,"country/assets/argentina_map02_big.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_map02_big.gif","","","",60);arrFiles[407]=new Array(408,"country/assets/argentina_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","argentina_map_big.gif","","","",69);arrFiles[408]=new Array(409,"country/assets/bolivia_img01.gif","2005-12-12","bolivia_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[409]=new Array(410,"country/assets/bolivia_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","La Paz, capital of Bolivia. The world \'s highest national capital lies in a basin that helps protect it from the winds of the altiplano . Behind it rises the snow-capped Illimani volcano that the indigenous people regarded as divine. By historical tradition, the much smaller city of Sucre is the seat of the Bolivia \'s Supreme Court and thus, formally, a co-capital. La Paz, however, is unquestionably foremost.",1);arrFiles[410]=new Array(411,"country/assets/bolivia_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","bolivia_img_big_01.gif","","","",103);arrFiles[411]=new Array(412,"country/assets/bolivia_map.gif","2005-12-12","bolivia_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[412]=new Array(413,"country/assets/bolivia_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[413]=new Array(414,"country/assets/bolivia_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","bolivia_map_big.gif","","","",13);arrFiles[414]=new Array(415,"country/assets/brazil_img01.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[415]=new Array(416,"country/assets/brazil_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Classroom in Salvador, Bahia. Salvador, Brazil \'s first capital and major city of the Northeast, is a place where most people are partly of African descent.",1);arrFiles[416]=new Array(417,"country/assets/brazil_img02.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[417]=new Array(418,"country/assets/brazil_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Săo Paulo. - The high rises of Brazil \'s megacity and industrial powerhouse stretch as far as the eye can see.",1);arrFiles[418]=new Array(419,"country/assets/brazil_img03.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img03.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[419]=new Array(420,"country/assets/brazil_img03.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Cattle lands. Cattle ranches like these in Matto Grosso do Sul, cover large areas of the Brazilian interior but do not figure in the country \'s international image.",1);arrFiles[420]=new Array(421,"country/assets/brazil_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img_big_01.gif","","","",91);arrFiles[421]=new Array(422,"country/assets/brazil_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img_big_02.gif","","","",110);arrFiles[422]=new Array(423,"country/assets/brazil_img_big_03.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_img_big_03.gif","","","",89);arrFiles[423]=new Array(424,"country/assets/brazil_map.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[424]=new Array(425,"country/assets/brazil_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[425]=new Array(426,"country/assets/brazil_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","brazil_map_big.gif","","","",15);arrFiles[426]=new Array(427,"country/assets/chile_img01.gif","2005-12-12","chile_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[427]=new Array(428,"country/assets/chile_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Santiago. Spectacular snow-capped Andean peaks loom over the capital of Chile, but so does a dense cloud of smog. The city stands at the north end of Chile \'s fertile and productive central valley.",1);arrFiles[428]=new Array(429,"country/assets/chile_img02.gif","2005-12-12","chile_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[429]=new Array(430,"country/assets/chile_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Downtown bustle. Chilean economic growth has been among the most promising in neoliberal Latin America",1);arrFiles[430]=new Array(431,"country/assets/chile_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","chile_img_big_01.gif","","","",117);arrFiles[431]=new Array(432,"country/assets/chile_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","chile_img_big_02.gif","","","",94);arrFiles[432]=new Array(433,"country/assets/chile_map.gif","2005-12-12","chile_map.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[433]=new Array(434,"country/assets/chile_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[434]=new Array(435,"country/assets/chile_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","chile_map_big.gif","","","",23);arrFiles[435]=new Array(436,"country/assets/colombia_img01.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[436]=new Array(437,"country/assets/colombia_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A street in Popayán. Colombia \'s Andean cities, like Popayán, with its extensively preserved colonial architecture, tend to be more traditionalist than other areas of the county.",1);arrFiles[437]=new Array(438,"country/assets/colombia_img02.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[438]=new Array(439,"country/assets/colombia_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Girl in the town of Silvia, the Department of Cauca. Colombia has many small groups of indigenous people, who range from the very Andean Guambianos of Silvia, like this girl, to the rainforest dwellers of the country \'s extensive Amazonian region. Widely scattered among Colombia \'s regions, they constitute a small part of today \'s population.",1);arrFiles[439]=new Array(440,"country/assets/colombia_img03.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img03.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[440]=new Array(441,"country/assets/colombia_img03.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Girl of Colombia \'s Pacific Coast. Between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean lies a narrowstrip of tropical forest where most people are of African descent. In that sense, it is comparable to the country \'s Atlantic Coast, but the Pacific Coast has been much more isolated historically.",1);arrFiles[441]=new Array(442,"country/assets/colombia_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img_big_01.gif","","","",117);arrFiles[442]=new Array(443,"country/assets/colombia_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img_big_02.gif","","","",89);arrFiles[443]=new Array(444,"country/assets/colombia_img_big_03.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_img_big_03.gif","","","",95);arrFiles[444]=new Array(445,"country/assets/colombia_map.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[445]=new Array(446,"country/assets/colombia_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[446]=new Array(447,"country/assets/colombia_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","colombia_map_big.gif","","","",14);arrFiles[447]=new Array(448,"country/assets/costarica_img01.gif","2005-12-12","costarica_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[448]=new Array(449,"country/assets/costarica_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","San José. Many parts of Costa Rica \'s capital city have a quiet, middle-class feel.",1);arrFiles[449]=new Array(450,"country/assets/costarica_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","costarica_img_big_01.gif","","","",110);arrFiles[450]=new Array(451,"country/assets/costarica_map.gif","2005-12-12","costarica_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[451]=new Array(452,"country/assets/costarica_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[452]=new Array(453,"country/assets/costarica_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","costarica_map_big.gif","","","",10);arrFiles[453]=new Array(454,"country/assets/cuba_img01.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_img01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[454]=new Array(455,"country/assets/cuba_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Baseball has been important in Cuban life since the late 1800s. This boy is playing in Havana \'s run-down historic district. In general, the Castro government has preferred to spend its resources outside the capital city, which got the lion \'s share before the revolution.",1);arrFiles[455]=new Array(456,"country/assets/cuba_img02.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_img02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[456]=new Array(457,"country/assets/cuba_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Cubans at home. Since the revolution, large old dwellings constructed by the island \'s rich in past centuries have been divided and occupied by ordinary Cuban families.",1);arrFiles[457]=new Array(458,"country/assets/cuba_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_img_big_01.gif","","","",117);arrFiles[458]=new Array(459,"country/assets/cuba_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_img_big_02.gif","","","",113);arrFiles[459]=new Array(460,"country/assets/cuba_map.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[460]=new Array(461,"country/assets/cuba_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[461]=new Array(462,"country/assets/cuba_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","cuba_map_big.gif","","","",27);arrFiles[462]=new Array(463,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img01.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[463]=new Array(464,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The Fortaleza Ozama the first military construction in the American colonies, sits on the edge of the Río Ozama and the Caribbean Sea—hence the ship in the background. Pictured here is the Torre de Homenaje , built in the early 1500s and used as a prison up to the twentieth century. The Fortaleza is part of Santo Domingo \'s colonial district.",1);arrFiles[464]=new Array(465,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img02.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[465]=new Array(466,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Santo Domingo. A street in the compact colonial center of the capital of the Dominican Republic, once crowded within massive city walls to protect it from pirates.",1);arrFiles[466]=new Array(467,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_img_big_01.gif","","","",81);arrFiles[467]=new Array(468,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_img_big_02.gif","","","",122);arrFiles[468]=new Array(469,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_map.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[469]=new Array(470,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[470]=new Array(471,"country/assets/dominicanrepublic_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","dominicanrepublic_map_big.gif","","","",10);arrFiles[471]=new Array(472,"country/assets/ecuador_img01.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[472]=new Array(473,"country/assets/ecuador_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Quito, the highland capital of Ecuador, retains intact many buildings of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.",1);arrFiles[473]=new Array(474,"country/assets/ecuador_img02.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_img02.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[474]=new Array(475,"country/assets/ecuador_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Indigenous Ecuadorians form roughly half the national population.",1);arrFiles[475]=new Array(476,"country/assets/ecuador_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_img_big_01.gif","","","",133);arrFiles[476]=new Array(477,"country/assets/ecuador_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_img_big_02.gif","","","",127);arrFiles[477]=new Array(478,"country/assets/ecuador_map.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[478]=new Array(479,"country/assets/ecuador_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[479]=new Array(480,"country/assets/ecuador_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","ecuador_map_big.gif","","","",14);arrFiles[480]=new Array(481,"country/assets/elsalvador_img01.gif","2005-12-12","elsalvador_img01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[481]=new Array(482,"country/assets/elsalvador_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Salvadorans are mostly of indigenous descent, but they have left their Indian identity behind since the 1930s.",1);arrFiles[482]=new Array(483,"country/assets/elsalvador_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","elsalvador_img_big_01.gif","","","",84);arrFiles[483]=new Array(484,"country/assets/elsalvador_map.gif","2005-12-12","elsalvador_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[484]=new Array(485,"country/assets/elsalvador_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[485]=new Array(486,"country/assets/elsalvador_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","elsalvador_map_big.gif","","","",23);arrFiles[486]=new Array(487,"country/assets/guatemala_img01.gif","2005-12-12","guatemala_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[487]=new Array(488,"country/assets/guatemala_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Mayan women. The bustling market of the town of Chichicastenango is among the most visited by tourists.",1);arrFiles[488]=new Array(489,"country/assets/guatemala_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","guatemala_img_big_01.gif","","","",146);arrFiles[489]=new Array(490,"country/assets/guatemala_map.gif","2005-12-12","guatemala_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[490]=new Array(491,"country/assets/guatemala_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[491]=new Array(492,"country/assets/guatemala_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","guatemala_map_big.gif","","","",10);arrFiles[492]=new Array(493,"country/assets/haiti_map.gif","2005-12-12","haiti_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[493]=new Array(494,"country/assets/haiti_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","haiti_map_big.gif","","","",13);arrFiles[494]=new Array(495,"country/assets/honduras_img01.gif","2005-12-12","honduras_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[495]=new Array(496,"country/assets/honduras_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Banana Plantations. In the twentieth century, banana plantations were the most notable economic development in Honduras, but they contributed very little to the prosperity of the country as a whole.",1);arrFiles[496]=new Array(497,"country/assets/honduras_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","honduras_img_big_01.gif","","","",122);arrFiles[497]=new Array(498,"country/assets/honduras_map.gif","2005-12-12","honduras_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[498]=new Array(499,"country/assets/honduras_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[499]=new Array(500,"country/assets/honduras_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","honduras_map_big.gif","","","",13);arrFiles[500]=new Array(501,"country/assets/mexico_img01.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[501]=new Array(502,"country/assets/mexico_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Mexico City. Since Aztec times, when it was called Tenochtitlán, Mexico City has remained unquestionably the political, cultural, and economic center of the country. Today it is one of the largest cities in the world.",1);arrFiles[502]=new Array(503,"country/assets/mexico_img02.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_img02.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[503]=new Array(504,"country/assets/mexico_img02.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Folk dancers in costume exemplify a different side of Mexican modernity. Each region of Mexico has distinctive traditional folkways. These children are representing those of the Yucatan peninusula.",1);arrFiles[504]=new Array(505,"country/assets/mexico_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_img_big_01.gif","","","",124);arrFiles[505]=new Array(506,"country/assets/mexico_img_big_02.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_img_big_02.gif","","","",100);arrFiles[506]=new Array(507,"country/assets/mexico_map.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[507]=new Array(508,"country/assets/mexico_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[508]=new Array(509,"country/assets/mexico_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","mexico_map_big.gif","","","",36);arrFiles[509]=new Array(510,"country/assets/nicaragua_img01.gif","2005-12-12","nicaragua_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[510]=new Array(511,"country/assets/nicaragua_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A stenciled image of the 1920s Nicaraguan hero Augusto César Sandino proclaims: Sandino Lives! The picture was taken during the Sandinista rule of the 1980s.",1);arrFiles[511]=new Array(512,"country/assets/nicaragua_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","nicaragua_img_big_01.gif","","","",97);arrFiles[512]=new Array(513,"country/assets/nicaragua_map.gif","2005-12-12","nicaragua_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[513]=new Array(514,"country/assets/nicaragua_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[514]=new Array(515,"country/assets/nicaragua_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","nicaragua_map_big.gif","","","",14);arrFiles[515]=new Array(516,"country/assets/panama_img01.gif","2005-12-12","panama_img01.gif","","","",4);arrFiles[516]=new Array(517,"country/assets/panama_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","The path between the seas. A wide place in the Panama Canal.",1);arrFiles[517]=new Array(518,"country/assets/panama_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","panama_img_big_01.gif","","","",58);arrFiles[518]=new Array(519,"country/assets/panama_map.gif","2005-12-12","panama_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[519]=new Array(520,"country/assets/panama_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[520]=new Array(521,"country/assets/panama_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","panama_map_big.gif","","","",28);arrFiles[521]=new Array(522,"country/assets/paraguay_img01.gif","2005-12-12","paraguay_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[522]=new Array(523,"country/assets/paraguay_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A Paraguayan family. Paraguayans are among the most thoroughly mestizo people in Latin America. The general use of the Guaraní language for familiar discourse is a good indication of the way Paraguay \'s national culture has incorporated the indigenous heritage.",1);arrFiles[523]=new Array(524,"country/assets/paraguay_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","paraguay_img_big_01.gif","","","",100);arrFiles[524]=new Array(525,"country/assets/paraguay_map.gif","2005-12-12","paraguay_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[525]=new Array(526,"country/assets/paraguay_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[526]=new Array(527,"country/assets/paraguay_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","paraguay_map_big.gif","","","",10);arrFiles[527]=new Array(528,"country/assets/peru_img01.gif","2005-12-12","peru_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[528]=new Array(529,"country/assets/peru_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","peru_img_big_01.gif","","","",116);arrFiles[529]=new Array(530,"country/assets/peru_img_big_01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Indigenous girl of Ollantaytambo in the Andean highlands of Peru.",1);arrFiles[530]=new Array(531,"country/assets/peru_map.gif","2005-12-12","peru_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[531]=new Array(532,"country/assets/peru_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[532]=new Array(533,"country/assets/peru_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","peru_map_big.gif","","","",15);arrFiles[533]=new Array(534,"country/assets/puertorico_img01.gif","2005-12-12","puertorico_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[534]=new Array(535,"country/assets/puertorico_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Puerto Rican Flags on Fifth Avenue. The annual Puerto Rican Day Parade held in New York City is a tribute to the city \'s oldest and largest Latino community.",1);arrFiles[535]=new Array(536,"country/assets/puertorico_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","puertorico_img_big_01.gif","","","",99);arrFiles[536]=new Array(537,"country/assets/puertorico_map.gif","2005-12-12","puertorico_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[537]=new Array(538,"country/assets/puertorico_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[538]=new Array(539,"country/assets/puertorico_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","puertorico_map_big.gif","","","",19);arrFiles[539]=new Array(540,"country/assets/uruguay_img01.gif","2005-12-12","uruguay_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[540]=new Array(541,"country/assets/uruguay_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","A sidewalk market in Montevideo \'s ciudad vieja —the colonial center of town. The constitution of 1830 was sworn in inside the low building on the left—the cabildo . Other structures from the ninteenth century line the Plaza \'s sidewalks. In between and behind these rise apartment and office buildings.",1);arrFiles[541]=new Array(542,"country/assets/uruguay_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","uruguay_img_big_01.gif","","","",118);arrFiles[542]=new Array(543,"country/assets/uruguay_map.gif","2005-12-12","uruguay_map.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[543]=new Array(544,"country/assets/uruguay_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[544]=new Array(545,"country/assets/uruguay_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","uruguay_map_big.gif","","","",12);arrFiles[545]=new Array(546,"country/assets/venezuela_img01.gif","2005-12-12","venezuela_img01.gif","","","",5);arrFiles[546]=new Array(547,"country/assets/venezuela_img01.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Modern Caracas. The buildings of colonial and nineteenth-century Caracas have all but vanished under twentieth-century construction, much of it sleek and modern. But the steep hills above the city are crowded with shanty towns of the poor.",1);arrFiles[547]=new Array(548,"country/assets/venezuela_img_big_01.gif","2005-12-12","venezuela_img_big_01.gif","","","",101);arrFiles[548]=new Array(549,"country/assets/venezuela_map.gif","2005-12-12","venezuela_map.gif","","","",3);arrFiles[549]=new Array(550,"country/assets/venezuela_map.htm","2005-12-12"," Welcome ","","","Heroic statuary commemorating Simón Bolívar \'s victory over the Spanish at Carabobo, insuring the independence of Venezuela. Saints and heroes have been the most common traditional subjects for sculpture in Latin America. Indeed, social and political engagement is a notable characteristic of Latin American arts and literature overall.	Source: Unknown. The picture is highly generic. --",1);arrFiles[550]=new Array(551,"country/assets/venezuela_map_big.gif","2005-12-12","venezuela_map_big.gif","","","",12);