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Notes:

1. The ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity of India's billion people has given rise to a diverse written and oral literary tradition that evolved over 3,500 years.
2. The Vedas are the primary scriptures of Hinduism and consist of four books of sacred hymns that are typically chanted by priests at ceremonies marking rites of passage.
3. The Upanisads argue that the soul is a manifestation of a single divine essence; release comes from understanding the basic unity between the self and the universe.
4. Two epics that express the core values of Hinduism are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
5. Dharma is the guiding principle of human conduct and preserves the social, moral, and cosmic integrity of the universe. It refers to sacred duties and righteous conduct, and is related to three other spheres that collectively govern an ideal life: artha (wealth, profit, and political power); kama (love, sensuality); moksa (release, liberation).
6. The belief that all beings are responsible for their own actions and their own suffering is known as karma.
7. Because Buddhism was a more egalitarian and populist religion, it initially gained a following among women, artisans, merchants, and individuals to whom the ritualistic and hierarchical nature of Hinduism seemed constraining.
8. Because Hinduism and its important texts such as the Bhagavad-Gita were able to synthesize tenets and ideas from the other religions, it was able to triumph in India.
9. The idea that moral and spiritual conquest is superior to conquest by the sword is an enduring motif of the time and one that was publicly endorsed by Emperor Asoka.

Text:
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1. The ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity of India's billion people has given rise to a diverse written and oral literary tradition that evolved over 3,500 years. Many of the languages of India, including Sanskrit, belong to the Indo-European family. Sanskrit, the language of literature, administration, and intellectual endeavor, entered India around 1500 B.C. with the nomadic Aryans. While Sanskrit is associated primarily with Hindu culture, the more popular Pali and Prakrit dialects were the preferred languages of Buddhists and Jains. Tamil, a language of south India belongs to the Dravidian language family. Interchange between north and south led to the development of both Sanskrit and Tamil literatures. With the arrival of Islam in the twelfth century, dynasties such as the Mughals introduced Islam and Arabic and Persian literatures to Indian literature and civilization. The onset of British colonialism in the seventeenth century positioned English as an important presence in Indian letters.
2. While it is known that the Indus River Valley civilization flourished (ca. 3000–1500 B.C.), the writing of the period found in Mohenjo Daro and Harappa has not yet been deciphered. The first known writings, originating from the Aryans, are the Vedas. They are the primary scriptures of Hinduism and consist of four books of sacred hymns that are typically chanted by priests at ceremonies marking rites of passage. They are considered divine revelations and are often recited in the form of mantras, or sacred utterances.
3. The Upanisads, or Mystic Doctrines, are mystical and philosophical meditations by thinkers wishing to gain ultimate wisdom. Without negating the authority of the Vedas, the Upanisads proffer a different worldview. De-emphasizing the role of the ritualistic present in the Vedas, the Upanisads argue that the soul is a manifestation of a single divine essence; release comes from understanding the basic unity between the self and the universe.
4. Two epics that express the core values of Hinduism are the Ramayana and the Mahabharatar. Though mythic in tone, it is believed that the poems are based on actual historical events in north India. Referred to as itihasa, or historical narrative, they lay the foundation for Aryan rule in the Ganges River Valley. Compiled by Vyasa, the Mahabharata focuses on a civil war between battling Aryans; Valmiki's Ramayana describes the adventures in exile of Prince Rama of Kosala. The stories have been retold in all of the major Indian languages and have inspired works of art and literature in India as well as in parts of Southeast Asia—notably Java, Thailand, and Malaysia. Both epic poems emphasize dharma—the guiding principle of good human conduct and the force that holds the social, moral, and cosmic fabric of the universe together.
5. Several core concepts of Hindu thought permeate the early literature of India. Dharma is the guiding principle of human conduct and preserves the social, moral, and cosmic integrity of the universe. It refers to sacred duties and righteous conduct, and is related to three other spheres that collectively govern an ideal life: artha (wealth, profit, and political power); kama (love, sensuality); moksa (release, liberation). All four castes, or varna, of Hindus—brahmans (priests), ksatriyas (warriors), vaisyas (merchants), and sudras (laborers)—are bound by a specific set of duties, or dharma, but only brahmans, ksatriyas, and vaisyas can work toward moksa. A woman's dharma is related to her position as a wife, and she is thus given little space to define her own identity. While the social position of Hindus is determined at birth, making for a markedly rigid and stratified society, many Hindu texts reflect ongoing power negotiations among the brahman, ksatriya, and vaisya classes.
6. The belief that all beings are responsible for their own actions and their own suffering is known as karma. A central premise of all three ancient religions of India, karma is the theory that suggests that all actions (good or bad) have consequences. In Hindu thought, the doer must bear the burden of these actions, and the soul is thus enmeshed in a perpetual cycle of life and death. According to the Upanisads, the only escape from this cycle is to identify with the pure self, thereby transcending the limitations of the human psyche. Buddhist thought rejects this idea, focusing instead on the ways that creatures can be freed from the cycle of suffering. The Jataka, a popular Buddhist tale collection, suggests that by detaching oneself from desire and focusing on the well-being of others, all persons can embark on the path toward enlightenment, thereby becoming a Bodhisattva.
7. Because Buddhism was a more egalitarian and populist religion, it initially gained a following among women, artisans, and merchants, and individuals to whom the ritualistic and hierarchical nature of Hinduism seemed constraining. Under Asoka's rule, the Mauryan empire (322–186 B.C.), Buddhism became a notable presence and spread southward to Sri Lanka and other neighboring countries in the north and west.
8. Ultimately, because Hinduism and its important texts such as the Bhagavad-Gita were able to synthesize tenets and ideas from the other religions, it was able to triumph in India. Hindus also believe in a triad of gods—Brahma, the creator; Visnu, the preserver; Siva the destroyer—who are responsible for the lives of all creatures on a cosmic scale. It is believed that worshiping Siva or Visnu eventually helps creatures escape from the cycle of karmic rebirth.
9. The heroic age of Indian literature encompasses a wide range of writings. Ancient Tamil poetry valorizes love and war; Arjuna and Rama appear heroic to many because they balance the violence of warrior ways with compassion and self-restraint; Buddha's teachings of self-perfection elevated him to status as "superhuman hero-king." In all, the idea that moral and spiritual conquest is superior to conquest by the sword is an enduring motif of the time and one that was publicly endorsed by Emperor Asoka.