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Social Groups
 Social groups, collections of people who share a sense of common
identity and regularly interact with one another on the basis of
shared expectations, shape nearly every experience in our lives. Social groups are distinctively different from social aggregates and social categories.
Among the types of social groups are in-groups and out-groups, primary
groups and secondary groups.
Reference groups provide standards by which we judge ourselves in
terms of how we think we appear to others, what sociologist
Charles Horton Cooley termed the "looking-glass self."
Group size is an important factor in group dynamics. Although
their intensity may diminish, larger groups tend to be more stable than smaller groups of two (dyads) or three (triads). Larger groups usually develop a formal structure.
Leaders are able to influence the behavior of the other members of
a group. The more common form of leadership is transactional,
that is, routine leadership concerned with getting the job done.
Less common is transformational leadership, which is concerned
with changing the very nature of the group itself.
Research, such as that conducted by Solomon Asch, indicates that people are highly conformist to group
pressure. Many people will do what others tell them to do, even
when the consequences could involve injury to others, as demonstrated
by Stanley Milgram.
Networks
Networks constitute a broad source of relationships, direct and indirect,
including connections that may be extremely important in
business and politics. Women, people of color, and lower-income
people typically have less access to the most influential economic
and political networks than do white males in American society.
A new, and increasingly powerful, source of networking is the Internet. Given its capacity for rapid communications and global reach, the Internet enables us to extend our personal networks even further. At the same time, members of some groups (the poor and the elderly) are less able to take advantage of the networking possibilities than members of other groups.
Organizations
An organization is a group with an identifiable membership that is actively working to achieve a common goal.
Organizations in modern and post-modern societies tend to be highly formal; they are in some degree bureaucratic in nature.
As societies grow in size and complexity, law, rather than custom or habit, becomes the basis for organizing social activity. In premodern societies people lived in small group settings and relied on family, friends, and neighbors. In today's society, many of our most important needs are met by strangers who are employed by formal organizations governed by formal rules and procedures.
Theories of Organizations
Bureaucracy is characterized by a clearly defined hierarchy
of authority; written rules governing the conduct of officials (who
work full time for a salary); and a separation between the tasks of
the official within the organization and life outside it. Members of
the organization do not own the material resources with which
they operate. Max Weber argued that modern bureaucracy is a
highly effective means of organizing large numbers of people, ensuring
that decisions are made according to general criteria.
Informal networks tend to develop at all levels both within and
between bureaucratic organizations. The study of these informal ties is as important
as the more formal characteristics on which Weber concentrated
his attention.
Robert Merton argued that certain dysfunctions can emerge as bureaucracies carry out their functions. In particular, he was concerned that the strict adherence to written rules and procedures could lead to bureaucratic ritualism.
The work of Weber and Michels identifies a tension between bureaucracy
and democracy. On the one hand, long-term processes
of the centralization of decision making are associated with the development
of modern societies. On the other hand, one of the main
features of the past two centuries has been expanding pressures
toward democracy. The trends conflict, with neither one in a position
of dominance.
Modern organizations have evolved as gendered institutions.
Women have traditionally been segregated into certain occupational
categories that support the ability of men to advance their
careers. In recent years, women have been entering professional
and managerial positions in greater numbers, but some believe
that women have to adopt a traditionally male management style
in order to succeed at top levels while others suggest that as women move into management, they introduce a "feminine" style of leadership within the organization.
Beyond Bureaucracy
Large organizations have started to restructure themselves over
recent years to become less bureaucratic and more flexible. Many
Western firms have adopted aspects of Japanese management systems:
more consultation of lower-level workers by managerial executives;
pay and responsibility linked to seniority; and groups,
rather than individuals, evaluated for their performance.
New information technology is changing the way in which organizations
work. Many tasks can now be completed electronically, a
fact that allows organizations to transcend time and space. The
physical boundaries of organizations are being eroded by the capabilities
of new technology. Many organizations now work as loose
networks, rather than as self-contained independent units.
George Ritzer has suggested that modern society is experiencing "McDonaldization." By this he means that the principles that characterize the operations of this fast food giant can now be seen more and more throughout American society, as well as around the world.
How Do Groups and Organizations Affect Your Life?
Social capital refers to the knowledge and connections that enable
people to cooperate with one another for mutual benefit and extend
their influence. Some social scientists have argued that social
capital has declined in the United States during the last quarter
century, a process they worry indicates a decline in Americans'
commitment to civic engagement.
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