The Industrial Revolution. New developments in the means of production led to increases in material goods and wealth. As production was centralized, urban society became more central to life in Europe and the Americas.

The philosophy of the Enlightenment. This world view placed an emphasis on the natural rights of people, and on the ability of humans to shape their own environment. Writers such as Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) and Voltaire (1694-1778) helped shape these ideals.

The political ideals of republican government. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on the individual led to the elevation of the individual’s role in political life. The idea of the social contract lay behind two of the most momentous events of the period, the American and French Revolutions.